Table 2.

Predictive risk factors of acute renal failure after cardiac surgery.

Type	Risk factor	Preoperative	Intraoperative	Postoperative
Prerenal	1. Renal dysfunction	• Lack of renal reserve	• Renal perfusion deficiency	• Renal perfusion deficiency
		• Renovascular disorder
		• Prerenal azotemia
	2. Hemodynamic	Cardiac dysfunction	• Non-pulsatile flow	• Low output syndrome
		• Cardiogenic shock	• Vasoactive agents	• Vasoactive agents
		• Severe arrhythmias	• Anesthetic effects	• Left ventricular dysfunction
		• Left main coronary disease	• Cardiogenic shock
			• Severe arrhythmias
			• Embolic events
			• Positive end-expiratory pressure
	3. Institutional	• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease	• Hypercalcemia	• Hypercalcemia
		• Diabetes	• Hypoproteinemia	• Hypoproteinemia
		• Low serum ferritin	• Hemodilution
Renal	1. Ischemic/hypoxic	• Lung disease	• Acute lung injury	• Acute lung injury
			• Ischemia-reperfusion injury
	2. Inflammatory	• Inflammation	• Surgical operation	• Systemic inflammation
			• Cardiopulmonary bypass
	3. Endotoxic	• Endotoxemia	• Endotoxemia	• Sepsis
	4. Nephrotoxic	• Intravenous contrast	• Free hemoglobin	• Nephrotoxic agents
		• Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) and angiotensin II receptor antagonist (ARB)
		• Other medications
	5. Renal vascular and microvascular	• Renal artery thrombosis	• Ditto	• Ditto
		• Takayasu arteritis involving the renal artery
		• Renal vein thrombosis
		• Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Postrenal	1. Obstructive	• Renal pelvic and ureteropelvic junction obstruction (renal calculus, malignant tumors, pelvic and retroperitoneal tumor compression)	• Ditto	• Ditto
		• Urocystic unfluent urination (prostatic hyperplasia or tumor, sarcoma, calculus and blood clots of the bladder, and neurogenic bladder)
		• Urethral stricture