Table 1.
List of traditional (i.e., Framingham), novel, and uremia-related biochemical risk factors proven (or hypothesized) to predict cardiovascular disease or outcome in patients with chronic kidney disease
| Biochemical Risk Markers | |
|---|---|
| Traditional risk factors Age | — |
| Male gender | — |
| Hypertension | — |
| Left ventricular hypertrophy | — |
| Smoking | — |
| Diabetes mellitus | HbA1c [52], glucose [53] |
| Dyslipidemia | Cholesterol [28], Lp(a) [189] |
| Novel risk and/or uremia-related risk factors | |
| Inflammation | IL-6 [37], IL-18 [38], S-albumin [39], WBC [40], fibrinogen [41], hyaluronan [42], MPO [43], CRP [44], PTX3 [45] |
| Oxidative stress | MPO [43], plasmalogens [127], oxLDL [125], AOPP [126] |
| Endothelial dysfunction | PTX3 [45], ADMA [79], tHcys [47], U-albumin [87], VCAM [97] |
| Protein-energy wasting | S-albumin [39], S-creatinine [39], prealbumin [50] |
| Sympathetic activation | Norepinephrine [51] |
| Coagulation/fibrinolysis disorders | Fibrinogen [41] |
| Insulin resistance | HOMA [54] |
| Genetics/epigenetics | SNPs [188], telomere attrition [190], DNA-methylation [198] |
| Vascular calcification | PO4 [147], Ca [148], PTH [148], fetuin-A [156[, OPG [162], OPN [163] |
| Classical uremic toxins | S-creatinine [39], P-cresol [76] |
| New uremic toxins | Proteomics [183] |
| Volume | NT-pro-BNP [48], troponin-T [49] |
| Subclinical hypothyroidism | fT3 [172], T3 [174] |
| Adipokines | Leptin [58], visfatin [59], adiponectin [66] |
| Anemia | Hemoglobin [55] |
HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; Lp(a), lipoprotein(a); IL, interleukin; WBC, white blood cell count; MPO, myeloperoxidase; CRP, C-reactive protein; PTX3, pentraxin-3; ADMA, asymmetric dimethylarginine; oxLDL, oxidized LDL; AOPP, advanced oxidation protein products; tHcys, homocystine; U-alb, urinary albumin excretion; VCAM, vascular cell adhesion molecule; HOMA, homeostasis model assessment method; SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism; PTH, parathyroid hormone; OPG, osteoprotegerin; OPN, osteopontin; NT-pro-BNP, N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide; T3, triiodothyronine.