Table 1.
Effect of environmental cues on biology and molecular pathways of freshwater intermediate host.
| Environmental determinants | Biological effect | Molecular pathways | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Euphorbia milii latex | Molluscicidal activity, physiological stress and altered reproduction | nd | Mello-Silva et al., 2010, 2011; Augusto et al., 2015 |
| Endocrine disruptors (Bisphenol A and Phthalate) | Increased oviposition and reproduction traits | nd | Iqbal and Sinha, 2011 |
| Cadmium | Lethal effect, locomotion alteration, acquisition of thermal tolerance, Diminution of egg hatching and Increased parasite sensitivity | HSP70 gene expression + | Salice and Roesijadi, 2002; Habib et al., 2016; da Silva Cantinha et al., 2017 |
| Manganese | Lethal effect | nd | Habib et al., 2016 |
| Zinc oxide nanoparticles | Molluscicidal activity | NO concentration + GST protein – GST, CAT and SOD activities – | Fahmy et al., 2014 |
| Chromium | Lethal toxicity and an embryonic developmental effect | nd | Tallarico et al., 2014 |
| Azinphos-methyl (organophosphorus insecticide) | Lethal effect | Carboxylesterases activity – | Bianco et al., 2014 |
| Diazinon and Profenfos (organophosphorus compound) | Lethal effect | SOD, CAT, GR, TrxR, and SDH activities – Lipid peroxidation + | Bakry et al., 2016 |
| Paraquat (herbicide) | Lethal effect | SOD activity – Lipid peroxidation + | Cochón et al., 2007 |
| Butachlor and Fluazifop-p-butyl (herbicide) | Lethal effect | Acid and alkaline phosphatases concentration + | Tantawy, 2002 |
| Chlorine and Huwa-san desinfectant | Lethal effect | SOD and GST activities – | Tantawy, 2002 |
| Glyphosate | Lethal effect | Total hemocytes + Phagocytic activity + DNA damage + | Mohamed, 2011 |
| Niclosamide and derivatives | Lethal effect | NOS, AChE and LDH activities – Hemoglobin, NOS, SOD and FREP4 expression – HSP20, HSP40 and HSP70 expression + CYP and GST expression + | Zhang et al., 2015; He et al., 2017 |
| Circadian cycle disruption | Host susceptibility | Total hemocytes – | Waissel et al., 1999; Steinauer and Bonner, 2012 |
Nd, non detected studies; (++), increase; (-), decrease; NO, nitric oxide; NOS, nitric oxide synthase; HSP, heat shock proteins; GST, Glutathione S-transferases; CAT, catalase; SOD, superoxide dismutase; GR, glutathione reductase; TrxR, thioredoxin reductase; SDH, sorbitol dehydrogenase; AChE, acetylcholinesterase; LDH, Lactate dehydrogenase; CYP, cytochrome P450; FREP4, fibrinogen related protein 4.