Table 1.

Summary of TBI models in pigs and the pathology after impact.

Model	Time after injury	Pathology present	Reference
Rotational acceleration	1 day	Increased gliosis in sulci accompanied by axonal swelling.	Smith et al., 1999a
Fluid percussion injury	24 h	Subarachnoid hemorrhage around area of impact. Aβ-positive neurons and axonal damage in white matter. Shrunken neurons and evidence of necrosis.	Fritz et al., 2005
Controlled cortical impact	10 h	Perivascular hemorrhage around injury site. Damage to dendrites and decreased MAP2 staining. Fluro-Jade B-positive neurons mainly present in cell bodies, dendrites, and axons.	Manley et al., 2006
Rotational acceleration	6 h	Increased subarachnoid bleeding in moderate accelerated pigs. APP accumulation and axonal injury in diencephalon region. No changes in NF68.	Ibrahim et al., 2010
Rotational accelerations	6 h	Accumulation of Aβ and hyperphosphorylated tau in subcortical white matter.	Eucker et al., 2011
Rotational acceleration	6 and 48–72 h	Initial APP accumulation post-injury in the periventricular white matter. Development of neurofibrillary subtypes in subcortical white matter.	Johnson et al., 2016
Rotational acceleration	7 days	Electrophysiological recordings from CA1 field showed greater output. No accumulation of Aβ or hyperphosphorylated tau.	Wolf et al., 2017
Rotational acceleration	6 and 48 h	Blood brain barrier leakage after concussion. Axonal swelling and beading. BBB leakage overlapped with APP-positive-labeled axons in white matter.	Johnson et al., 2018