Table 2.
A variety of studies have been completing investigating insect learning by Hymenopteran parasitoids of importance to pest management strategies. Researchers have sought to improve the efficacy of pest management efforts against a diverse range of pest insects using a variety of stimuli and conditioning paradigms.
| Time of Conditioning | Parasitoid | Pest Species | Stimuli | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Prior to / during emergence | Hyssopus pallidus Askew (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) | Cydia pomonella Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) | kairomones in larvae and frass | Gandolfi et al. 2003a, b |
| During / postemergence | Nemeritis canescens Gravenhorst (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) | Ephestia kilhniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and E. elutella Hübner (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) | host kairomones | Thorpe and Jones 1937 |
| Postemergence | Dinarmus basalis Rondani (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) | Zabrotes subfasciatus Boheman (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) and Acanthoscelides obtectus Say (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) | host kairomones | Caubet and Jaisson 1991 |
| Trichogramma nr. Brassicae Bezdenko (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) | Sitotroga cerealella Olivier (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) and Helicoverpa punctigera Wallengren (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) | host kairomones | Bjorksten and Hoffmann 1998 | |
| Microplitis croceipes Cresson (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) | Helicoverpa zea Boddie (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) | host-plant semiochemicals | Drost et al. 1988 | |
| Cotesia marginiventris Cresson (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) | Spodoptera frugiperda Smith (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Trichoplusia ni Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) | host-plant semiochemicals and kairomones in frass | Lewis et al. 1991 | |
| Cotesia marginiventris and Microplitis croceipes | H. zea | host-plant semiochemicals and kairomones in frass | Turlings et al. 1989, 1993 | |
| Microplitis demoliter Wilkinson (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) | H. zea | host-plant semiochemicals in frass | Hérard et al. 1988 | |
| Aphytis melinus DeBach (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) | Aonidiella aurantia Maskell (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) | kairomone in host cuticle | Hare et al. 1997 | |
| Cotesia marginiventris | Spodoptera frugiperda | kairomone in host frass | Loke and Ashley 1984 | |
| Microplitis croceipes, Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), and T. achaeae Nagaraja (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), and Nagarkatti (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) | H. zea | kairomone in host frass | Gross et al. 1975 | |
| Pre-adult and during oviposition | Trichogramma nr ivelae Pang and Chen (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) | H. punctigera, Papilo Aegeus Donovan (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), and Hypolimnus bolina Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) | host kairomones | Bjorksten and Hoffmann 1995 |
| During oviposition | Psyttalia concolor Szépligeti (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) | Ceratitis capitate Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae) | color | Benelli and Canale 2012 |
| Leptopilina heterotoma Thomson (Hymenoptera: Eucoilidae) | Drosophila simulans Sturtevant (Diptera: Drosophilidae) | host-infested fruit odors | Vet et al. 1990 | |
| Cotesia glomerate Linnaeus (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) | Pieris brassicae Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) and Spodoptera littoralis Boisduval (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) | host-infested plant odors | Desurmont et al. 2018 | |
| Lysiphlebus fabarum Marshall (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) | Aphis fabae Scopoli (Hemiptera: Aphididae) | social cues | Rasekh et al. 2010 | |
| During repeated ovipositioning | Trichogramma achaeae | H. zea | kairomone in host cuticle | Lewis et al. 1975 |
| Multi-generational | Trichogramma maidis Pintureau and Voegele (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae) | Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and Anagasta kuehniellu Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) | host kairomones | Kaiser et al. 1989 |