Table 1.

Table of Results. Number of refugees marked with^a indicate that it is a mixed population

Study	Study Design	Aim	Study setting	Service Explored	Study Methods	Number of Refugees	Country of Origin or Background	Main Findings
Bellamy et al. 2017[28]	Qualitative	African refugees’ experiences of barriers in accessing pharmacy services in Brisbane.	Brisbane, Queensland	Pharmacy services	Focus groups	16	Somalia (5) Congo (5) South Sudan (2) Uganda (1) Burundi (1) Liberia (1) Eritrea (1)	When describing their experiences in accessing pharmacy services, refugees noted four overarching themes: health system differences, navigating the Australian health system, communication barriers and health care-seeking behaviour.
Carolan et al. 2010[29]	Qualitative	Experiences of African-born pregnant women receiving antenatal care in Melbourne.	Melbourne’s western suburbs	Maternity services	In-depth interviews	18	Ethiopia (1) Sudan (12) Eritrea (2) Somalia (2) Kenya (1)	Five themes that African refugee women giving birth encounter: pregnancy is not special; resettlement is a priority; childbearing is a normal process; coming to value continuous pregnancy care; and cultural sensitivity is important.
Cheng et al. 2015[30]	Qualitative	Factors influencing Afghan refugees’ access at a single general practice in south-east Melbourne in 2013.	City of Greater Dandenong and City of Casey, Victoria	Primary care	Semi-structured interviews and field observation	6	Afghanistan (6)	Barriers to healthcare for newly arrived refugees include language and cultural responsiveness, appointments, difficulties with transport to the practice, long wait times and the cost of care.
Clark et al. 2014[31]	Qualitative	Barriers to accessing primary health care services and exploration of medicine-related issues as experienced by refugee women in South Australia.	South Australia	Using health services and medicines while living in Australia	Focus groups	38	Sudan, Burundi, Congo (15) Burma (10) Afghanistan (5) Bhutan (8)	Patients found that language barriers were the main barrier to accessing primary health care. Interpreters were used inconsistently, and patients noted poor literacy.
Correa-Velez et al. 2012[32]	Mixed methods	Developing a model of refugee maternity healthcare for from consultations with stakeholders, chart audit and surveys with health service providers and refugees.	Mater Mothers’ Hospital, Queensland	Maternity services	Chart audit and surveys (separate surveys with hospital staff)	23	Sudan (14) Burundi (5) Ethiopia (2) Congo (1) Somalia (1)	Participants stated the need for interpreters, education programs for pregnant women, and continuity of care.
Henderson et al. 2011[33]	Qualitative	Access and use of health services by four CALD communities in Logan, Queensland.	Logan, Queensland	All services	Focus groups	42a	Sudan, Afghanistan, Pacific Islands and Myanmar	Unfamiliarity with health services, difficulties accessing care were experienced by CALD communities. CALD communities valued traditional medical practices and wanted health practitioners to respect this. Language barriers and interpreter issues prominent.
Kay et al. 2016[34]	Qualitative	Barriers and facilitators of quality use of medicines for from primary healthcare providers and refugee health leaders in Brisbane.	Brisbane, Queensland	Pharmacy services	Semi-structured interviews	3	Sudan (1) Myanmar (1) Liberia (1)	Five barriers were identified between HCWs and refugee health leaders: communication and language constraints, cultural issues, limited health literacy, financial cost, and health system concerns.
Liamputtong et al. 2006[35]	Qualitative	Experience of caesarean birth among Cambodian, Lao and Vietnamese women.	Melbourne, Victoria	Maternity services	In-depth interviews	91a	Laos (30) Vietnam (30) Cambodia (31)	Women’s experiences in caesarean birth have three main themes: trust in medical knowledge, expectations and communication with an understanding of their caregivers’ preferences.
McBride et al. 2016[36]	Mixed methods	Evaluation of the Refugee Health Nurse Liaison role at Dandenong Hospital.	Dandenong Hospital, Victoria	Refugee Health Nurse Liaison	Semi-structured surveys (60) and chart audits (journals were only used with service providers)	60	Afghanistan (30) Sri Lanka (12) Iran (6) Burma (2) Iraq (2) Sudan (1) Pakistan (3) Other (2)	Patients noted that Refugee Health Nurse Liaisons were helpful in interpreting and providing helpful information.
McBride et al. 2017[37]	Mixed Methods	Experiences of refugees in using Monash Health Refugee Health and Wellbeing services.	South-East Region of Melbourne	All services	Semi-structured interviews (18) and surveys (159)	177	Afghanistan (77) Sri Lanka (43) Iran (11) Myanmar (16) Iraq (3) Pakistan (14) Bangladesh (7) Other (6)	Refugees were highly satisfied with the service emphasising the importance of a trusting relationship with staff, access to bicultural support workers, onsite interpreting and integrated care.
McCann et al. 2016[38]	Qualitative	Help-seeking barriers and facilitators of mental health and substance use services in recently arrived young Sub-Saharan African migrants in Melbourne.	Melbourne, Victoria	Mental health and substance use services	In-depth interviews (28) and focus groups (41)	69a	Sub-Saharan Africa	Participants noted four help-seeking barriers that prevented them from seeking help for mental health and alcohol and drug use: stigma of mental illness, lack of mental health literacy in parents and young people, perceived lack of cultural competency of formal help sources, and financial costs deterring access.
Murray et al. 2010[39]	Qualitative	Birth experiences of African refugee women in Brisbane.	Brisbane, Queensland	Maternity services	Semi-structured interviews	10	Sudan (5) Liberia (1) Ethiopia (2) Somalia (2)	Refugee birthing experiences faced some unique challenges such as language barriers, the refugee experience, female genital mutilation, and healthcare staff with little cultural competence.
Neale et al. 2007[40]	Mixed Methods	Health service use and barriers of recently arrived immigrants from the Horn of Africa in Melbourne.	Melbourne, Victoria	All services	Semi-structured questionnaires	126a	Somalia (67) Eritrea (29) Ethiopia (24) Sudan (6)	Difficulties with language, including the availability of interpreters, were identified as the main barriers to accessing appropriate health services. Half reported difficulties with accessing services.
Nicol et al. 2014[41]	Qualitative	Refugee experience, access and understanding relating to early oral health.	Western Australia	Child dental health services	Focus groups (interviews were only with service providers)	39	Burma (16) Iraq, Kuwait (9) Sudan (5) Afghanistan (3) Burundi (2) Congo (2) Rwanda (1) Nigeria (1)	Many participants felt overwhelmed due to misinformation and low health literacy. Themes involved included parents’ past experience, resettlement issues, and enablers and barriers to accessing dental services.
Niner et al. 2013[42]	Qualitative	Experiences of pregnancy and birth before and after resettlement for Karen women in Australia.	Not specified	Maternity services	Interviews	15	Myanmar (15)	Many patients used self-reliance when emotionally distressed. They were unsettled by the medicalisation of birthing and reaction to health service varied from gratitude to feelings of discrimination.
O’Callaghan et al. 2007[43]	Qualitative	Experiences of older Vietnamese women in using medications in Fairfield, NSW.	Fairfield, New South Wales	Primary care	Semi-structured interviews (20) and focus groups (20)	40	Vietnam (40)	Women’s health literacy influence medication use and their rationale. Refugees have concerns about health professionals not favouring traditional medicine use.
Omeri, A et al. 2006[44]	Qualitative	Beliefs, practices and experiences of Afghan people in accessing healthcare in New South Wales.	New South Wales (most likely Sydney)	All services	Semi-structured interviews and focus groups	38	Afghanistan (38)	Four main themes emerge from Afghan refugee experiences of accessing healthcare: emotional responses to trauma and migration, culture specific health maintenance strategies, cultural views on mental health, barriers impeding accessibility and cultural factors influencing outcomes.
Owens et al. 2016[45]	Qualitative	Refugee and migrant women’s perceptions of using antenatal healthcare services in Perth.	Perth, Western Australia	Community-based maternity services	Semi-structured interviews	12a	Indonesia (1) Pakistan (1) Vietnam (1) Iran (1) Sudan (1) Myanmar (6) Thailand (1)	Women noted lack of social support during pregnancy, language difficulties, and cultural differences. They were happy with the completeness of care throughout pregnancy.
Phillips 2013[46]	Qualitative	Readily accessible remote telephone interpreting in the resettlement experience of refugees.	Not specified	Remote translation and interpreting services	Chart audit (265) and interviews (8)	273	Afghanistan, Bosnia, Burma, Iran, Iraq, Sierra Leone, Sudan	Remote interpreters do not provide the same care and attention as an on-site interpreter. Longer conversations, more interruptions, can occur with remote interpreters.
Riggs et al. 2012[47]	Qualitative	To explore the utilisation and experience of maternal and child health services in Melbourne for parents of refugee background from the perspective of users and providers.	Wyndham and Hume in Melbourne, Victoria	Maternal and child health services	Focus groups (interviews were only with service providers)	87	Karen, Iraqi, Assyrian Chaldean, Lebanese, South Sudanese, Bhutanese	Barriers for patients included access to transport, lack of confidence in speaking English. Continuity of care was appreciated and preferred. 4 identified themes included facilitating access to maternal and child health services, promoting continued engagement with the MCH service, language challenges, and what is working well and could be done better.
Riggs et al. 2016 [59]	Qualitative	Experiences of barriers, knowledge and surrounding beliefs of maternal oral health from refugees and service providers.	South-East region of Melbourne	Maternal dental health services	Focus groups (interviews were only with service providers)	27	Afghanistan (14) Sri-Lanka (13)	Afghan men provided transport, translation and their role in caring for their wives challenged traditional preconceptions. Afghan men would like health professionals to enquire about their health concerns.
Riggs et al. 2017[49]	Qualitative	Experiences of Karen women in group pregnancy care in Melbourne.	Melbourne, Victoria	Maternity services	Focus groups	19	Karen (19)	Women felt empowered and reassured when learning about pregnancy, sharing stories and developing trusting relationships in a group setting. Communication and privacy were issues encountered in the hospital.
Riggs, Yelland, Szwarc et al. 2016[48]	Qualitative	The experiences of Afghan women and men of refugee background having a baby in Melbourne, Australia.	Greater Dandenong and Casey in Melbourne	Maternal and child health services	Interviews (focus groups were only with service providers)	30	Afghanistan (30)	Afghan men found their role as a father changed in Australia but were generally pleased with the changes. Men appreciated when health professionals took an interest in them and would prefer if HCWs were responsive to issues surrounding settlement in a new country.
Robards et al. 2019 [60]	Qualitative	Understanding health system navigation and the role of technology for young people belonging to one or more marginalised groups.	New South Wales	All services	Semi-structured interviews	9a		Marginalised young people are ambivalent about their healthcare journey. For refugees, confidentiality concerns, discrimination and confusion over the complexity of the health system were commonly encountered themes.
Russo et al. 2015[50]	Qualitative	Emotional and social wellbeing of new mothers from Afghanistan living in Melbourne.	City of Greater Dandenong and City of Casey, Victoria	Maternal and child health services	Focus groups (28) and in-depth interviews (10)	38	Afghanistan (38)	The majority of patients reported positive experiences with HCWs and the health system They felt respected and included in the decisions regarding their care. Some discussed how their care conflicted with traditional cultural practices. Emotional challenges and changes to improve emotional wellbeing were also identified.
Samuel et al. 2017[20]	Qualitative	Narratives of health-seeking behaviours of Sri-Lankan Tamil refugees in Melbourne.	Melbourne, Victoria	All services	Semi-structured interviews	12	Sri Lankan (12)	Tamil refugees describe their health-seeking influenced by the search for the ‘good life’ that was lost or never experienced, seeking help from familiar channels in an unfamiliar context, and the desire for financial and occupational independence.
Sheikh et al. 2011[51]	Mixed methods	Identifying issues affecting newly arrived refugees in accessing an emergency department.	Liverpool Hospital, New South Wales	Emergency department	Semi-structured questionnaires	155	Africa (106) Middle East (49)	Newly arrived refugees were aware of how to call for emergency medical help, but a large proportion noted they were fearful to make phone calls due to security implications on the basis of previous experiences in their home country.
Sievert et al. 2018[52]	Mixed methods	To characterise and identify health literacy of chronic hepatitis B and barriers accessing healthcare in at-risk migrant populations.	Monash Health liver and refugee clinics in Melbourne suburbs	Liver and refugee clinics	Surveys (14) and semi-structured interviews (19)	33a	Afghanistan (11) Myanmar (8) South Sudan (14)	Refugees and asylum seekers living with chronic hepatitis B have competing social pressures which impact their prioritisation of health. Poor knowledge about disease, testing, services as well as language barriers and cultural differences encountered impacted accessibility of services.
Stapleton et al. 2013[53]	Mixed methods	Women from refugee background’s experiences of antenatal healthcare at an Australian tertiary public hospital.	Not specified	Maternity services	Focus groups (18), surveys (42) and chart audit (190)	250	Africa, Middle East and other countries	Patients noted differences between their traditional birthing practices and Western practices. Continuity of care throughout antenatal period provided security and support to negotiate an unfamiliar setting.
Sypek et al. 2008[54]	Qualitative	Impact of regional resettlement of refugees on rural health services and critical health infrastructure in four rural towns in NSW.	Four rural communities in New South Wales	Primary care	Interviews	7	East and West Africa Europe Middle East	Availability of appropriate primary health care services, language accessibility and mismatch in service delivery expectations were all concerns identified in health services and health infrastructure in rural NSW towns.
Valibhoy, Kaplan, et al. 2017[55]	Qualitative	Experiences of young people in using mental health services in Australia.	Mainly in Melbourne, but not specified	Mental health services	Semi-structured interviews	16	Iraq (5) Afghanistan (3) Iran (2) Sudan (1) Pakistan (1) Tanzania (1) Ethiopia (1) Côte d’Ivoire (1) DR Congo (1)	Young refugee users of mental health services describe their experiences under the themes of accessible and responsive services, cultural sensitivity, recognising the impact of psychosocial stress, appropriate treatment strategies and the therapeutic relationship.
Valibhoy, Szwarc, et al. 2017[19]	Qualitative	Description of barriers young people face in accessing mental health services in Australia.	Mainly in Melbourne, but not specified	Mental health services	Semi-structured interviews	16	Iraq (5) Afghanistan (3) Iran (2) Sudan (1) Pakistan (1) Tanzania (1) Ethiopia (1) Côte d’Ivoire (1) DR Congo (1)	Refugees face unfamiliarity with existence of services or thresholds needed to enter a service and stigma. Refugee youth more likely to turn to informal help than professional help. Negative expectations about seeking help, need for autonomy and structural barriers faced by refugees.
Wohler et al. 2017[56]	Systematic review	Systematic review into barriers culturally and linguistically diverse women face in accessing mental health services in Australia.		Mental health services				When accessing mental health services in Australia, culturally and linguistically diverse women (including refugees) face language and communication barriers, logistical barriers, barriers of cultural dissonance and have a preference for alternative interventions.
Yelland et al. 2014[57]	Qualitative	Responsiveness of health services to the social and mental health of Afghan women and men at the time of having a baby.	City of Greater Dandenong and City of Casey, Victoria	Maternal and child health services	Semi-structured interviews (focus groups were only with service providers)	30	Afghanistan (30)	Participants stated they were not asked about social circumstances despite social hardship during the antenatal and postnatal period.
Yelland et al. 2016[58]	Qualitative	Afghan refugee and service providers’ experiences of language support during pregnancy check-ups, labour and birth.	Victoria	Maternity services	Interviews (focus groups were only with service providers)	30	Afghanistan (30)	There was a lack of use of interpreters with family members often interpreting.