Table 1.

Characteristic of studies included in the meta-analysis.

	References	Country	Population	Males	Females	Age	Performance measurement	Other variables included	Executive functions specified	Distribution of participants
1	Aadland et al., 2017	Norway	n = 1,129	588	541	10–11 years	Arithmetic, reading and English	Aerobic capacity, motor skills, arithmetic, reading	Working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility	57 schools in a southern county with more than 100,000 inhabitants
2	Aarnoudse-Moens et al., 2013	The Netherlands	n = 200 n = 230	212	218	4–12 years	Mathematics	Mathematics (standardized tests), attention (parents and teachers)	Verbal and visuo-spatial working memory, impulse planning, and control, verbal fluency	Three schools in the same city
3	Alloway and Alloway, 2010	United Kingdom	n = 98	50	48	5–11 years	Mathematics and language	IQ, reading comprehension, reading, spelling, mathematical reasoning, and numerical operations	Working memory and short-term verbal memory	No information
4	Best et al., 2011	United States	n = 2036	unknown	unknown	5–17 years	Mathematics and reading	Identify letters and words, comprehension, vocabulary; calculation, applied problems, and quantitative concepts	Executive functions: planning, attention, simultaneous, and successive	Entire country
5	de Bruijn et al., 2018	The Netherlands	n = 472 n = 473	208/210	264/263	7–9 years	Mathematics and spelling	Physical fitness, mastery of mathematics and spelling	Inhibition, verbal and visuo-spatial working memory, change of attention	12 schools in the northern part of the country
6	Bryce et al., 2015	United Kingdom	n = 66	37	29	5–7 years	Mathematical reasoning and reading of words	Mathematical reasoning and reading of words	Inhibitory control, working memory	Six schools in Bristol (United Kingdom)
7	Abreu et al., 2014	Brazil	n = 106	60	66	6–8 years	Reading	Reading, writing, mathematics, spoken language, natural and social sciences	Cognitive flexibility, working memory, inhibition, selective attention.	Various populations, various schools, urban environment
8	Gerst et al., 2017	United States	n = 93	41	52	5–11 years	Reading comprehension and mathematical calculations	Conduct, working memory, reading comprehension skills, mathematical calculations	Working memory, inhibition and change	Three schools in a large metropolitan area
9	Gómez-Veiga et al., 2013	Spain	n = 77	39	38	8–9 years	Reading comprehension	Spelling and reading comprehension; updating and retaining information; and non-verbal intelligence	Working memory	Two schools in a population of more than 100,000 inhabitants
10	Gray et al., 2015	Canada	n = 204	101	103	5–9 years	Mathematics and reading	Addition, subtraction, calculation, and reading ability, and fluency	Lack of attention and working memory	Large, suburban and rural school district, Southern Ontario
11	Hall et al., 2015	United Kingdom	n = 101	50	51	5–8 years	Mathematics and reading	Reading, comprehension of sentences, procedures, problem-solving, and reasoning	Primary memory	No information
12	Mulder et al., 2017 (44 children of unknown gender)	The Netherlands	n = 552	236+22	277+22	3–6 years	Literacy, mathematics	Knowledge and estimation of numbers, mathematical skills, knowledge of letters, phonological awareness, language, reading-writing skills	Selective attention, visuo-spatial working memory, short-term visuo-spatial memory, short-term verbal memory	Entire country
13	Oakhill et al., 2011	United Kingdom	n = 97 n = 100	unknown	unknown	6–11 years	Reading accuracy and comprehension	Cognitive skills: verbal, numerical, spatial; reading (accuracy, comprehension) and working memory: verbal, numerical and spatial	Working memory	Five schools in the country
14	Oberer et al., 2018	Switzerland	n = 134	66	68	5–9 years	Mathematics and reading	Sequences, addition-subtraction, comprehension and reading speed, visual-motor coordination and, physical fitness	Inhibition, changing and updating	Schools in a college town
15	Ribner et al., 2017	United States	n = 1292	unknown	unknown	5–12 years	Mathematics and reading	Counting, measuring, arithmetic, verbal and non-verbal operations, letters, words, reading ability	Working memory, inhibitory control, switching attention	Two geographical areas of the country with high poverty rates
16	Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2018	Spain	n = 142	74	68	6–12 years	Mathematics and reading skills	Study skills (organization and habits); applied calculations and problems; letter sounds, word reading, intonation, etc.; social skills	Activation control, focus of attention and inhibitory control.	Two geographical areas of the country with high poverty rates
17	Sesma et al., 2009	United States	n = 60	30	30	9–15 years	Reading comprehension	Attention, decoding, fluency and vocabulary	Working memory and planning	No information
18	Tsubomi and Watanabe, 2017	Japan	n = 121	67	54	7–12 years	Literacy (reading and writing), mathematics, science, music, art, physical education	All subjects assigned	Visual working memory	One school
19	Welsh et al., 2010	United States	n = 164	71	93	4–6 years	Beginning literacy and basic arithmetic	Reading skills, arithmetic skills and cognitive skills	Working memory and attention control	Schools in three Pennsylvania counties