Table 3.

Findings on Sociodemographic Correlates of Benzodiazepine Misuse

Population	Finding	References
Age
General population samples in the U.S.	Younger age (e.g., < 25) was associated with benzodiazepine misuse	(Arterberry et al., 2016; Blanco et al., 2018; Fenton et al., 2010; Ford et al., 2018; Goodwin and Hasin, 2002; Huang et al., 2006; Maust et al., 2018; McCabe et al., 2006a)
General population samples outside of the U.S.	Older age was associated with benzodiazepine misuse	(Assanangkornchai et al., 2010; Schneider et al., 2015)
Adolescents/young adults in the U.S.	Older age was associated with benzodiazepine misuse	(Ford, 2008b, 2009; Kelly et al., 2013; McCabe, 2005; McCabe et al., 2007a) (Rigg and Ford, 2014; Schepis and Krishnan-Sarin, 2008)
	No association between age and benzodiazepine misuse	(Boyd et al., 2015)
Adults with opioid misuse/SUDs/injection drug use	Younger age (e.g., < 25) was associated with benzodiazepine misuse	(Boggis et al., in press; Darke et al., 1992; Ickowicz et al., 2015; Moitra et al., 2013; Ng et al., 2007; Tucker et al., 2016; Van Griensven et al., 2005)
	Older age (e.g., > 25) was associated with benzodiazepine misuse	(Brady et al., 1991; Brands et al., 2008; Malcolm et al., 1993; Rooney et al., 1999; Votaw et al., 2019)
	No association between age and benzodiazepine misuse	(Apantaku-Olajide et al., 2012; Bleich et al., 1999; Bleich et al., 2002; de Wet et al., 2004; Dobbin et al., 2003; Eiroa-Orosa et al., 2010; Lavie et al., 2009; Malcolm et al., 1993; McHugh et al., 2018; McHugh et al., 2017; Moses et al., 2018; Schuman-Olivier et al., 2013; Stein et al., 2017b)
Gender
General population samples in the U.S.	Women were at greater risk of benzodiazepine misuse	(Becker et al., 2007; Ford et al., 2014; Simoni-Wastila et al., 2004; Simoni-Wastila and Strickler, 2004)
	Men were at greater risk of benzodiazepine misuse	(Blanco et al., 2018; Goodwin and Hasin, 2002; Lev-Ran et al., 2013; Maust et al., 2018)
	No association between gender and benzodiazepine misuse	(Blanco et al., 2013; Ford et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2006)
General population samples outside of the U.S.	Women were at greater risk of benzodiazepine misuse	(Abrahamsson and Hakansson, 2015; Assanangkornchai et al., 2010; Galduroz et al., 2005; Hall et al., 1999; Schneider et al., 2015)
	No association between gender and benzodiazepine misuse	(Hall et al., 1999)
Adolescents/young adults in the U.S.	Women were at greater risk of benzodiazepine misuse	(Ford et al., 2014; McCabe and West, 2014; Schepis and Krishnan-Sarin, 2008; Terry-McElrath et al., 2009)
	Men were at greater risk of benzodiazepine misuse	(Dagirmanjian et al., 2017; McCabe, 2005; McCabe et al., 2006b; McCabe et al., 2014)
	No association between gender and benzodiazepine misuse	(Boyd et al., 2015; Boyd et al., 2006; Ford, 2008b, 2009; McCabe et al., 2007a; McCabe et al., 2017a; Pickover et al., 2016; Shadick et al., 2016)
Adolescents/young adults outside of the U.S.	Women were at greater risk of benzodiazepine misuse	(Carrasco-Garrido et al., 2018; Currie and Wild, 2012; Kokkevi et al., 2008)
Adults with opioid misuse/SUDs/injection drug use	Women were at greater risk of benzodiazepine misuse	(Brands et al., 2008; Darke et al., 1992; Darke et al., 2010; Dobbin et al., 2003; Ross, 1993; Stein et al., 2017b; Tucker et al., 2016; Vigna-Taglianti et al., 2016; Votaw et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2010)
	Men were at greater risk of benzodiazepine misuse	(Bleich et al., 2002)
	No association between gender and benzodiazepine misuse	(Bawor et al., 2015; Bleich et al., 1999; Boggis et al., in press; Darke et al., 1994a; Davies et al., 1996; Eiroa-Orosa et al., 2010; Ghitza et al., 2008; Hearon et al., 2011; Ickowicz et al., 2015; McHugh et al., 2018; McHugh et al., 2017; Moitra et al., 2013; Mulvaney et al., 1999; Ng et al., 2007; Peles and Adelson, 2006; Peles et al., 2009; Perera et al., 1987; Schiff et al., 2007; Schuman-Olivier et al., 2013; Shand et al., 2011)
Race/Ethnicity1
General population samples in the U.S.	Non-Hispanic White racial/ethnic identity was associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to numerous racial/ethnic minorities	(Arterberry et al., 2016; Becker et al., 2007; Ford et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2006; Simoni-Wastila et al., 2004)
	Hispanic and non-Hispanic Black racial/ethnic identities were associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to non-Hispanic White identity	(Blanco et al., 2018)
	“Other” and Hispanic racial/ethnic identities were associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to non-Hispanic Black identity	(Becker et al., 2007)
	Native American racial/ethnic identity was associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to other racial/ethnic minorities	(Huang et al., 2006)
	No association between race/ethnicity and benzodiazepine misuse	(Maust et al., 2018)
Adolescents/young adults in the U.S.	Non-Hispanic White racial/ethnic identity was associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to numerous racial/ethnic minorities	(Boyd et al., 2015; Dagirmanjian et al., 2017; Ford, 2008b, 2009; McCabe, 2005; McCabe et al., 2007a; McCabe et al., 2017b; McCabe and West, 2014; Rigg and Ford, 2014; Schepis and Krishnan-Sarin, 2008; Terry-McElrath et al., 2009; Whiteside et al., 2013)
	“Other” racial/ethnic identity was associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to Black and Hispanic identities	(McCabe et al., 2017b)
Adolescents/young adults outside of the U.S.	Aboriginal racial/ethnic identity was associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to non-Aboriginal identities	(Currie and Wild, 2012)
Adults with opioid misuse/SUDs/injection drug use	Non-Hispanic White racial/ethnic identity was associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to numerous racial/ethnic minorities	(Anagnostopoulos et al., 2018; Boggis et al., in press; Bouvier et al., 2018; Compton et al., 2000; Ghitza et al., 2008; Khosla et al., 2011; Malcolm et al., 1993; Schuman-Olivier et al., 2013; Tucker et al., 2016; Votaw et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2012)
	Hispanic racial/ethnic identity was associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to Black identity	(Mulvaney et al., 1999)
	Hispanic racial/ethnic identity was associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to other racial/ethnic identities	(Stein et al., 2017b)
	No association between race/ethnicity and benzodiazepine misuse	(Bleich et al., 2002; Ickowicz et al., 2015; Moitra et al., 2013)
Other subgroups (e.g., men who have sex with men, adults with HIV, adults in the club drug scene)	Non-Hispanic White racial/ethnic identity was associated with benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to numerous racial/ethnic minorities	(Kecojevic et al., 2015c; Kelly and Parsons, 2010; Kelly et al., 2013; Vijayaraghavan et al., 2014)
	No association between race/ethnicity and benzodiazepine misuse	(Kelly et al., 2015a)
Sexual Identity
General population samples in the U.S.	Sexual minority groups were more likely to misuse benzodiazepines, as compared to those with heterosexual identities	(Cochran et al., 2004)
Adolescents/young adults in the U.S.	Sexual minority groups were more likely to misuse benzodiazepines, as compared to those with heterosexual identities	(Dagirmanjian et al., 2017; McCabe, 2005; Shadick et al., 2016)
Adolescents/young adults outside of the U.S.	Sexual minority groups were more likely to misuse benzodiazepines, as compared to those with heterosexual identities	(Li et al., 2018)
Other subgroups (e.g., men who have sex with men, adults in the club drug scene)	Sexual identity was not associated with benzodiazepine misuse	(Kelly and Parsons, 2007, 2010; Kelly et al., 2015a; Kelly et al., 2013)
	Gay sexual identity was associated with lower risk of benzodiazepine misuse, as compared to hetero- or bi-sexual identities	(Kecojevic et al., 2015c)
Other Sociodemographic Factors
General population samples in the U.S. (adults and young adults/adolescents)	Lower levels of education, lower income, unemployment, and being unmarried were associated with benzodiazepine misuse	(Arterberry et al., 2016; Becker et al., 2007; Blanco et al., 2018; Goodwin and Hasin, 2002; Huang et al., 2006; McCabe et al., 2018; Schepis et al., 2018a)
Adults with opioid misuse/SUDs/injection drug use	Lower levels of education, homelessness, unemployment, and/or being unmarried were associated with benzodiazepine misuse	(Apantaku-Olajide et al., 2012; Backmund et al., 2005; Bleich et al., 1999; Bleich et al., 2002; Darke et al., 1992; Eiroa-Orosa et al., 2010; Lavie et al., 2009)
	Those with benzodiazepine misuse were less likely to be homeless, more likely to be married and employed, and/or had greater levels of education	(Ickowicz et al., 2015; Malcolm et al., 1993; Moitra et al., 2013)
	No association between homelessness, marital status, employment status, level of education, income, and benzodiazepine misuse	(Bouvier et al., 2018; Brands et al., 2008; Fry and Bruno, 2002; Ghitza et al., 2008; Mateu-Gelabert et al., 2017; McHugh et al., 2018; McHugh et al., 2017; Rooney et al., 1999; Williams et al., 1996)

Note: References included in the table do not represent an exhaustive list of studies examining sociodemographic correlates of benzodiazepine misuse. Instead, this table provides an overview of the main findings.

¹The vast majority of studies examining racial/ethnic identity as a correlate of benzodiazepine misuse have been conducted in the U.S., and therefore racial/ethnic minority status refers to U.S. demographics.