Table 1.
Descriptive Statistics of Variables by State PDMP Policies (Mean/Proportion and 95% Confidence Intervals).
| States with PDMP Data Access for Benzodiazepines | States without PDMP Data Access for Benzodiazepines | Between-state Difference P-value | States with Mandatory Use of PDMPs for Benzodiazepines | States without Mandatory Use of PDMPs for Benzodiazepines | Between-state Difference P-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age-adjusted Drug Overdose Death Rate Involving Benzodiazepines per 100,000 population | 2.93 (2.76, 3.10) |
1.03 (0.98, 1.08) |
<0.001 | 3.94 (3.65, 4.24) |
1.64 (1.55, 1.72) |
<0.001 |
| Age-adjusted Drug Overdose Death Rate Involving Prescription Opioids per 100,000 population | 5.96 (5.75, 6.18) |
3.03 (2.94, 3.13) |
<0.001 | 7.33 (6.90, 7.76) |
3.98 (3.87, 4.10) |
<0.001 |
| Age-adjusted Drug Overdose Death Rate Involving Both Benzodiazepines and Prescription Opioids per 100,000 population | 1.91 (1.78, 2.03) |
0.62 (0.59, 0.66) |
<0.001 | 2.40 (2.20, 2.61) |
1.04 (0.98, 1.10) |
<0.001 |
| PDMP Data Access for Benzodiazepines | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0.36 (0.34, 0.38) |
<0.001 | |
| Mandatory Use of PDMP Data for Benzodiazepines | 0.17 (0.15, 0.19) |
0 | <0.001 | 1 | 0 | |
| Physicians per 1,000 people, n | 2.51 (2.48, 2.54) |
2.82 (2.76, 2.88) |
<0.001 | 2.56 (2.47, 2.64) |
2.70 (2.66, 2.74) |
0.05 |
| Poverty Rate, % | 13.58 (13.40, 13.76) |
12.01 (11.87, 12.15) |
<0.001 | 15.22 (14.78, 15.65) |
12.45 (12.34, 12.56) |
<0.001 |
| Median Household Income, 2016 Dollars | 55,189 (54,742, 55,636) |
57,872 (57,506, 58,238) |
<0.001 | 52,797 (51,853, 53,741) |
57,090 (56,793, 57,387) |
<0.001 |
| Unemployment Rate, % | 6.31 (6.19, 6.42) |
5.31 (5.23, 5.38) |
<0.001 | 6.19 (5.93, 6.45) |
5.67 (5.61, 5.74) |
<0.001 |
| Medicaid Expansion as Part of Affordable Care Act | 0.21 (0.18, 0.23) |
0.0084 (0.0045, 0.012) |
<0.001 | 0.47 (0.41, 0.53) |
0.059 (0.051, 0.067) |
<0.001 |
Notes: Please see Table S1 for the list of states with and without PDMP data access, and states with and without mandatory use of PDMP data. Florida was excluded from this study.