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. 2019 Jul 22;9:10550. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-46923-0

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Comparison of microbial community composition in infants, toddlers and mothers. (A) Overall composition differed among infants, toddlers and mothers, as shown in a Bray Curtis Multidimensional Scaling plot where centroids are shown as square points. Multiple samples from a single individual were combined within each age range. A PERMANOVA analysis showed overall differences between the groups while post hoc PERMANOVAs showed significant differences between mothers and either of the baby groups (mothers:0–2 month p = 0.0039; mothers:10–12 month p = 0.078). (B) Shannon diversity and (C) richness varied significantly among age groups (by Kruskal-Wallis), and increased with increasing age (by LME). Bars indicate significant post hoc comparisons (Mann Whitney test) with the two asterisks showing p values between 0.01 and 0.001. The mean number of species detected per infant from 0–2 mo of age was 30, from 10–12 months it was 33, and in mothers it was 83 (95% CI = 14–47, 15–50, 64–102, respectively).