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. 2019 Jun 3;40(4):913–935. doi: 10.1007/s10712-019-09540-0

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© The Author(s) 2019

Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

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Fig. 2 — Multiple perspectives on Amazon forest diversity. The figure depicts the study region and forest-type variation sensed with imagery acquired contemporaneously with the floristic and ecological inventories. a Top left. South American forest cover in the year 2000 and location of Peru. b Top right. Western Amazon forest ‘Functional Classes’ inferred from hyperspectral imagery by Asner et al. (2017) in Peru, with location of the lower Tambopata region in south-east Peru highlighted in red box. c Centre. Our sample landscape outlined as 15-by-40-km zone oriented along the lower Tambopata river. Young or disturbed vegetation regenerating after fluvial and anthropogenic clearing represents ≈ 10% of the landscape and was not sampled. Black icons represent locations of floristic sample plots in ‘Altura’ forest (Pleistocene sediments); red icons sample plots in ‘Bajio’ forest (Holocene sediments). In this false-colour image, the purple-green hued vegetation closer to the river corresponds to ‘Bajio’; the brighter green away from the river is ‘Altura’. Landsat imagery from https://landsat.usgs.gov/landsatlook-images, level-1 data product using imagery from 1999 to 2001, centred on Landsat path 114 row 175 and treated with a three-standard-deviation stretch. d Below left. The best-sampled forests centred on Tambopata reserved zone. Note the fine-scale variation in canopy composition and structure driven by small elevational differences. The total elevational range within this IKONOS image is ≈ 30 m. e Below right: Ground-truthed interpretation of IKONOS imagery based on direct observation of geomorphology, hydrology and vegetation species and structure. Colours correspond to ten distinct local forest types (Gentry 1988, Conservation International and Foster 1994): among-habitat diversity in species composition and associated functional traits is greater than the basic Altura–Bajio dichotomy. ‘Altura’ forest is dark green here (ancient Pleistocene river terrace); ‘Bajio’ forest includes orange and pink (different levels of Holocene terraces) as well as swamp and fluvial successional systems. Images from Palmero (2004)