Table 1.
Applications of neurofeedback for PTSD patients.
| References | Sample | Design | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | %male | Age (years) | Medicated (yes/no) | Randomized (yes/no) | NF approach | Control group | Risk of bias | Outcome measures and measures used | ||
| DecNef | Chiba, this manuscript | 4 | 0 | 40 (mean) | Yes, n = 3 | No | Multivariate pattern for angry face | No | C | CAPS:97.8–>54.5 |
| f-MRI-nf | Zotev et al., 2018 | 23 (15 NF vs. 8 sham) | 100 | 30.8 vs. 36.8 (mean) | Yes | Amygdala upregulation during a happy emotion induction | sham | B | CAPS: 55–>41 | |
| Nicholson et al., 2017a,b | 10 | 40 | 49.6 (mean) | Yes, n = 9 | No | Amygdala downregulation | No | C | A shift in amygdala complex connectivity | |
| Gerin et al., 2016 | 3 | 100 | 37.3 (mean) | Yes, n = 3 | No | Amygdala downregulation | No | C | CAPS: 65–>37 | |
| EEG-nf | Askovic et al., 2017 | 2 | 100 | 31(mean) | Yes, n = 2 | No | Enhance either the SMR or alpha rhythm | No | C | HTQ:3.15–>1.85 HSCL-D: 3.30>2.1 HSCL-A: 3.2–>1.95 |
| van der Kolk et al., 2016 | 28 | 89 | 46 (mean) | Yes, n = 16 (NF) n = 10 (WL) | Yes | Enhance alpha activity | WL | B | NF: CAPS:80.1–> 44.1 DTS:67.3–>55.7 WL: CAPS:75.2–> 65.8 DTS:63.0–>60.6 |
|
| Nicholson et al., 2016 | 21 | 14 | 39.9 (mean) | Yes, n = 11; | No | Alpha desynchronization | C | A shift in amygdala complex connectivity | ||
| Ros et al., 2017 | 21 | 14 | 39.9 (mean) | Yes, n = 11; | No | Alpha desynchronization | No | C | Decrease in TAC correlated with increases in Hurst exponent at the feedback channel Increase in Alpha amplitude |
|
| Gapen et al., 2016 | 17 | 12 | 32–64 (Range) | Yes, n = | Yes (T4-P4 or T3-T4) | Enhance alpha activity | Active | DTS: 69.14–>49.26 | ||
| Kluetsch et al., 2014 | 21 | 14 | 39.9 (mean) | Yes, n = 11; no, n = 10 | No | Alpha desynchronization | No | C | A shift in functional connectivity | |
| Smith, 2008 | 10 | 100 | 26–63 (Range) | Yes, n = 3 | No | Two phased: (1) bipolar uptraining (15–18 Hz and 12–15 Hz) + theta (4–7 Hz) suppression and (2) alpha/theta (5–8 Hz) training followed by bipolar uptraining | No | C | PTSD induced symptoms of depression and attention measured by HAMD and TOVA | |
| Pop-Jordanova and Zorcec, 2004 | 10 | 70 | 9 (mean) | No | No | SMR | No | C | Skin electric resistance Brainwave changes PTSD symptoms |
|
| Peniston et al., 1993 | 20 | 100 | 37.2 (mean) | Not reported | No | Alpha/theta | No | C | Synchronization, Brainwave amplitude changes, PTSD symptoms reported by monthly telephone contact |
|
| Peniston and Kulkosky, 1991 | 29 (15 NF vs. 14 TAU) | 100 | 36.1 vs. 37.25 (mean) | Yes | Yes | Alpha/theta | TAU | B | MMPI-indexed personality changes Medication consumption PTSD symptoms reported by monthly telephone contact | |
TAC, Thayer Activation Checklist; NF, neurofeedback condition; WL, waitlist condition; CAPS, Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale; HTQ, Harvard Trauma Questionnaire; HSCL-D, Hopkins Symptom Checklist Depression Scale; HSCL-A, Hopkins Symptom Checklist Anxiety Scale; DTS, the Davidson Trauma Scale; HAMD, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale; TOVA, Test of Variables of Attention; SMR, The sensorimotor rhythm; MMPI, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory; TAU, Treatment-as-usual.