Table 1.

Specific examples of immune responses and biomarkers in various immunotherapy contexts

Category and example class of drug	Immune response mediator	Accessible biomarker distal to patient response	Accessible biomarker proximal to patient response
Vaccination  Influenza vaccine	Neutralizing antibody titer and memory T cells/naive B cells	Circulating antiflu MP/HA/NA antibodies Matrix Protein, Hemagglutinin, Neuraminidase	Protection/immunity to infection
Suppression  Anti‐TNF Tumor Necrosis Factor	TNF (cytokine)	Reduction in free (non–drug bound) TNF levels	Disease scores—ACR American College of Rheumatology (arthritis) or PASI Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (psoriasis)
Suppression  Peptide immunotherapy	Dendritic cells/T cells	Expansion of tolerogenic T cells, loss of ex vivo responsiveness to antigen	Reduction in effector T cells or cytokine release following challenge
Activation  Anti‐PD‐1 Programmed Death‐1	Activated, tumor‐specific T cells	Circulating cytotoxic T‐cell activation and proliferation	Antigen‐specific tumor infiltrating lymphocytes