Table 3.

Different fabrication methods of graphene-based scaffolds, their advantages, and disadvantages

Scaffold preparation method	Advantages	Disadvantages	Ref.
Freeze-drying	Low pressure processing, stable structure, thermal stability, apt hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, good porosity, and improved morphology to stimulate cell growth. Good porosity and interconnectivity enable easy microvasucularizations.	Some inflammatory responses.	156,157
Ice segregation-induced self-assembly (ISISA)	ISISA process showed unidirectional control of the morphology (by freezing in nitrogen liquid) and illustrates the in-situ incorporation of biological entities which provides hierarchy and functionality to the resulting materials. Improvement in number of cell and collagen infiltration, blood vessels, ambient conditions that for the growth of neuronal axons within the scaffold. No evidence of atrophy, inflammation, or fibrosis were detected in peripheral organs.	A significant reduction in cells positive for vimentin. Macrophages are influenced by the presence of graphene nanomaterials.	158
Solvent casting	Suitable for creating scaffolds with uniform pore size. Enables controlled gas permeability (oxygen and nitrogen) through the films, enhances tissue engineering applications. The in vitro analysis in mouse embryo fibroblasts displayed faster tissue regeneration with good biocompatibility, cell adhesion enhancement ,and proliferation.	Presence of salt residues in the scaffold.	131,132
Gas foaming	The inter-porosity of the scaffold permits diffusion of nutrients and signaling products between the layers. Exceptional dimension stability depends on the saturation conditions. Enhanced adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation	Non-biodegradability and in vivo toxicity due to oxidative potential.	159
Melt moulding	Mechanically stable scaffolds with good biocompatibility, enhanced cellular proliferation, accelerated growth, differentiation, cell–cell interactions proliferation of stem cells, and higher mineralization.	Cellular uptake mechanisms not clear.	160,161
Emulsification	Hydrogels based scaffolds which have high control over the pore size and structure of the scaffold. Excellent drug carriers, improved cell adhesion and suitable environments for tissue engineering.	Multiple drug loading not possible	162
Electrospinning	Simple and low-cost equipment, easy scale-up possibility of outstanding morphological, thermal, mechanical, and wettability properties. Good biocompatibility, enhanced cell attachment and growth. Suitable for static and dynamic cell culture protocols.	Limited cell infiltration in dense structures. Increased graphene concentration causes stress in certain cell types.	163,164
Bioprinting	Geometrically defined structures. Control over morphology and functions of the developed scaffold. Excellent reproducibility. Good cell viability, cellular attachment proliferation, maturation, and no toxicity response.	Controlled cell distributions and vascularization.	112