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. 2019 Jul 18;9(7):1029. doi: 10.3390/nano9071029

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© 2019 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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The typical response of a healthy neuron, held by whole-cell patch clamping, when exposed to certain stimuli. (a) A single action potential caused by a depolarizing current injection; (b) fast sodium currents during membrane depolarization in voltage-clamp (arrow). The stimulating electrode artifact is indicated with an asterisk. (c) The experimental setup for simultaneous laser stimulation and whole-cell patch clamp recordings on a neuron. (d) Phase-contrast image showing a patched neuron. Right: microelectrode; left: optical fiber. Reproduced with permission from [23]. John Wiley and Sons, 2014.