Table 1.

Conceptual Checks and Empirical Test for Determining Whether Indicators Are Causal-formative or Reflective (Effect)

Conceptual Check
Mental Experiment (see Bollen, 1989; Bollen & Lennox, 1991)	1. Reflective (effect) Indicators: Imagine a change in latent variable net of other indicator influences. Will this lead to a change in the indicators?
	2. Causal-formative Indicators: Imagine a change in the indicator net of other latent variable influences. Will this lead to a change in the latent variable?
Empirical Test
Vanishing Tetrad Test (see Bollen & Ting, 2000)	1. Based on hypotheses and mental experiments, formulate one or more measurement models with causal-formative indicators, reflective (effect) indicators, or some combination.
	2. Calculate chi-square test for each model and assess fit.
	3. Compare any of the competing models that are nested in their vanishing tetrads.
	4. Choose the hypothesized model with the best fit.