Table 1.

Mode of action (MOA) and proposed mechanism of antibiotic resistance for the following commonly used disinfectants in poultry processing: HDP, PAA, SHY and TSP (HDP: hexadecylpyridinium chloride, PAA: paracetic acid, SHY: sodium hypochlorite, TSP: trisodium phosphate).

Disinfectant	Disinfectant Type	Proposed Modes of Action	References	Proposed Mechanism Conferring Antibiotic Resistance	References
HDP	Quaternary ammonium	Adsorption and penetration of cell wall. Disruption of cytoplasmic membrane. Leakage of intracellular low molecular-weight constituents. Degradation of proteins and nucleic acids. Cell lysis due to cell wall degrading autolytic enzymes.	[30,39]	Overexpression of efflux pumps. Induce cellular morphological changes such as thickening of cell envelope or loss in outer membrane proteins.	[39]
PAA	Organic acid and an oxidant	Non-specific oxidation particularly of C–C double bonds and reduced atoms (i.e., S).	[40]	None known.	[40]
SHY	Chlorine	Uncoupling of the electron chain or enzyme inactivation (i.e., trans-phosphorylase inactivation) either in the membrane or in the cell interior.	[41]	Induces biofilm formation.	[42]
TSP	Alkaline detergent	High pH (12 to 13) disrupts cytoplasmic and outer membranes resulting in leakage and eventual cell death. High ionic strength can cause bacterial cell autolysis. Removes bacterial cells from carcass surface (i.e., chicken skin) by removing a thin layer of lipids (“detergent” effect) from the surface of the carcass thereby exposing cells that would otherwise be protected, and results in bacterial cell autolysis.	[30,41]	Overexpression of efflux pumps. Induce cellular morphological changes such as loss in outer membrane proteins.	[30]

HDP: hexadecylpyridinium chloride, PAA: peracetic acid, SHY: sodium hypochlorite, TSP: trisodium phosphate.