Table 6.
Summary of cross-sectional studies on the relationship between vitamin C and periodontal disease.
| Reference | Study Sample | Measurement of Vitamin C | Measurement of Periodontal Status | Control of Confounding Factors a | Key Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lee et al. [21] | 10,930 individuals (≥19 years; Korea) |
A 24-h dietary record (adequate/inadequate vitamin C intake) | CPI score; periodontitis; CPI = 3 or 4 |
1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 | Lowest intake (<47.3 mg/day) vs highest intake (≥132.2 mg/day); adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 1.28 (95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.10–1.50) |
| Park et al. [23] | 2049 individuals (19–39 years; Korea) | Complete one-day 24-h recall interviews | CPI score; periodontitis; CPI = 3 or 4 |
1, 2, 3, and 4 | Lower intake (<81.3 mg/day) vs higher intake (≥81.3 mg/day); aOR = 1.66 (95% CI = 1.04–2.64) for women; aOR = 1.49 (95% CI = 1.04–2.14) for nonsmokers |
| Luo et al. [22] | 6415 individuals (≥30 years; U.S.) | 24-h recall interviews | PD; AL; increased severity | 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 | Vitamin C intake ≤20.65 mg/day vs ≥112.91/da7; aOR = 1.401 (95% CI = 1.12–1.74) |
| Nishida et al. [24] |
12,419 individuals (20 years and over; U.S.) | 24-h dietary record | Clinical attachment level; periodontal disease ≥1.5 | 1 and 3 | Vitamin C intake (<0–29 mg/day) vs (>180 mg/day); aOR = 1.30 |
| Chapple et al. [25] | 11,895 individuals (≥20 years; U.S.) |
Serum vitamin C and anti-oxidant concentration | AL; PD; severe periodontitis: ≥2; mesiobuccal sites with AL ≥5 mm and ≥1; mesiobuccal sites with PD ≥4 mm | 1, 2, 3, and 5 | Serum vitamin C concentration: highest (>70.41 mmol/L) vs lowest (<8.52 mmol/L); aOR = 0.53 (95% CI = 0.42–0.68) |
| Amarasena et al. [26] | 413 individuals (70 years and older; Japan) | Serum vitamin C | AL | 1, 3, 4, and 5 | Serum vitamin C level-attachment loss: coefficient = −0.04 (95% CI = −0.06 to −0.005) |
| Amaliya et al. [27] | 123 individuals (33–43 years; Indonesia) | Plasma vitamin C | AL | 1, 2, 3, and 4 | Plasma vitamin C- attachment loss; coefficient = −0.199 |
a The following variables were adjusted in the analyses: 1—demographic factors; 2—socioeconomic factors; 3—smoking/alcohol; 4—flossing/brushing; 5—diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and obesity.