Table 2.
Policy options for reducing the importation and establishment of nonnative forest insects and pathogens
| Category and supporting science | Strategy | Options and references |
|---|---|---|
| Point of origin | ||
| (1) Controlling invasives is a “weakest‐link” public good that benefits from strengthening practices in countries of origin | Phytosanitary practices abroad | Strengthen overseas protection measures and establish pre‐clearance partnerships such as clean stock programs for plants (Perrings et al. 2002, Haack et al. 2010, Keller and Perrings 2011) |
| (2) Monitoring native United States plants growing in other countries can help determine susceptibility to pests | Monitoring for new threats | Enhance Sentinel Plant programs (National Academy of Sciences (NAS) 2002, Britton et al. 2010) |
| Arrival pathways | ||
| (1) Interventions to reduce the risk of the wood packaging material (WPM) invasion pathway provide a net economic benefit over time. (2) Historically invasions have increased with trade volume, indicating that pathway risks increase with increasing trade. |
WPM | Require phase‐out of solid WPMs in international shipping (State of NY vs. USDA 2005, Campbell and Schlarbaum 2014) Promote voluntary phase‐out of WPM by retailers (Campbell and Schlarbaum 2014) Strengthen ISPM‐15 measures for treating WPM (Haack et al. 2010) Strengthen enforcement of ISPM‐15 standards and increase penalties for non‐compliance(Campbell and Schlarbaum 2014) |
| (3) Visual inspections are not adequate to detect pests, therefore integrated measures are necessary. (4) Studies indicate that current procedures detect only a fraction of pests imported on live plants and WPM |
Live plant imports | Substantially restrict or eliminate imports of live woody plants for horticultural use (Lodge et al. 2006, Keller and Springborn 2014, Roy et al. 2014) Promote voluntary standards for importing “clean” woody plants and strengthen market demand (Roy et al. 2014) Strengthen enforcement of existing regulations and increase penalties for non‐compliance (Roy et al. 2014) Educate travelers about risks of importing plants and increase penalties (Environmental Law Institute 2002) |
| Pre‐establishment | ||
| (1) Expense of mitigating invasion increases and likelihood of success decreases once a pest becomes established. (2) Quarantine and surveillance have been effective strategies to combat invasion in the United States and other countries. |
Improve inspections | Ensure adequate funding through federal budgets and user fees (Simberloff et al. 2005, Reaser and Waugh 2007, Roy et al. 2014) Enhance evidence‐based inspection by combining robust random sampling with targeted sampling of high‐risk shipments (NAS 2002, GAO 2006, Lodge et al. 2006, Reaser and Waugh 2007, Haack et al. 2014) Accelerate testing, adoption, and sharing of new inspection methods and diagnostic tools (Lodge et al. 2006, Reaser and Waugh 2007) |
| Strengthen early detection and response | Require post‐entry quarantine of all imported trees and shrubs (Campbell and Schlarbaum 2014) Develop coordinated national surveillance system (Lodge et al. 2006, Keller and Perrings 2011) Establish secure funding for pest eradications (Lodge et al. 2006) |
|
| Research and development | ||
| (1) Multiple sources report that current data collection and data sharing protocols are inadequate. (2) Other agencies such as the Center for Disease Control have effectively applied effective data collection, database management, collaboration, data sharing, and timely analysis to combat hazards to the public. |
Improve information management | Improve data quality and data management procedures within APHIS and CBP (NAS 2002, Reaser and Waugh 2007) Revise inspection and data collection methods to support evaluation of policy effectiveness (NAS 2002, Lodge et al. 2006, GAO 2006, Reaser and Waugh 2007, Haack et al. 2014) Improve access to data for researchers and managers (NAS 2002, GAO 2006, Reaser and Waugh 2007, Haack et al. 2014) Institute regular data analysis and reporting by APHIS and CBP on prevention effectiveness, including biennial report to Congress (NAS 2002) Develop and improve global information systems (NAS 2002, Keller and Perrings 2011) Increase collaboration across agencies and with academic researchers (Ricciardi et al. 2000, Herms and McCullough 2014) Establish Scientific Advisory Committee on prevention methods under FACA |
Observations that support the need for new policies are listed (Supporting Science) for each category. References are to literature in which the policy option has been suggested previously.