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. 2019 Jul 8;11(7):1160. doi: 10.3390/polym11071160

Table 10.

Examples of track-etched PVDF membranes using swift heavy-ion irradiation and subsequent chemical etching.

Swift Heavy-Ion Irradiation Chemical Etching Pre/Post-Treatment Morphology Ref.
Accelerator facility: van de Graaff (absorbed dose of 100 kGy)
Cyclotron: GANIL (Caen, France)
Energy (MeV/amu): 10.37
Fluence: 107 and 5 × 108 cm−2
Heavier projectiles: Kr under He atmosphere		 Temperature (°C): 65;
Time (h): 0.5–3;
Composition: permanganate solution (0.25 M) in KOH (10 M)		 Post-treatment: Radiografting Structure: cylindrical pores;
Pore size: 20–50 nm		 [247]
Cyclotron: GANIL (Caen, France)
Energy (MeV/amu): 2.85
Fluence: 9.5 × 108 cm−2 and 9.5 × 109 cm−2;
Heavier projectiles: Sn in vacuum		 Temperature (°C): 55–85;
Time (h): 0.5–3;
Composition: a saturated KMnO4 solution (0.25 mol L−1) prepared in different alkaline conditions (0.1, 0.9, 9 molL−1 KOH; 9 molL−1 KOH+
0.004 mmol L−1 TBAm);		 / Structure: cylindrical open pores; conical-shaped pores;
Pore size: <114 ± 18 nm		 [248]
Thermal neutron flux: 1.7 × 1013 cm−2 s−1;
Heavier projectiles: 235U with oxygen		 Temperature(°C): <60;
Time (h): 0–400;
Composition: 5, 7.5, 10 and 12 mol L−1 KOH; 5, 7.5, 10 and 12 mol L−1 NaOH with ethanol and fluorochemical surfactant; 5, 7.5, 10 and 12 mol L−1 LiOH		 / Pore size: 30–220 nm
Pore density (cm−2): 3 × 108 		[249]
Accelerator facility: GSI (Darmstadt, Germany);
Energy (MeV/N): 13.7;
Heavier projectiles: 238U 		Temperature (°C): 70;
Time (h): 0–50;
Composition: KMnO4 (0.1, 0.15, 0.25 FW) in KOH (6, 7.5, 8, 10 N)		 / Pore size: <5 μm [250]
Cyclotron: GANIL (Caen, France)
Energy (MeV/amu): 10.37
Fluence: 107–1010 cm−2;
Heavier projectiles: Kr in a He atmosphere		 Temperature (°C): 65;
Time (h): 0.5;
Composition: permanganate solution (0.25 M) in KOH (10 M)		 Post-treatment: Radio-grafting Pore size: 40 nm [251]
Cyclotron: R7M
Energy (MeV/amu): 41.6
Fluence: 107–1010 cm−2;
Heavier projectiles: 40Ar in a vacuum		 Temperature (°C): 93;
Time (h): 1–6;
Composition: KMnO4 (2 gmL−1) in NaOH (6 N)		 Pre-treatment: periodic
heating of test samples 		Pore size: 250 nm
Pore density (cm−2): 1.8 × 109 		[246]
Accelerator facility: GSI (Darmstadt, Germany);
Energy (MeV/N): 11.1 (208Pb), 6.7 (58Ni), 6.2 (84Kr) and 3.5 (129Xe);
Fluence: 3 × 106–3 × 1011 cm−2;
Heavier projectiles: 208Pb, 58Ni, 84Kr and 129Xe		 Temperature (°C): 80;
Composition: KOH (9 mol dm−3)		 Pre-treatment: periodic
heating of test samples 		Pore size: (nm)
305 ± 31 (208Pb),
118 ± 11 (58Ni),
109 ± 14 (84Kr),
93 ± 8 (129Xe)		 [252]
Energy (MeV): 220;
Fluence: 1011 cm−2;
Heavier projectiles: Ar9+ in a vacuum		 Temperature (°C): 90;
Composition: KOH (10 N), KMnO4 (0.25 N) and KIO (0.5 N)		 / / [253]
Energy (MeV): 450;
Fluence: 3 × 107 cm−2;
Heavier projectiles: 129Xe in a vacuum		 Temperature (°C): 80;
Time: 0–50 h;
Composition: KOH (9 mol dm−3)		 / Pore size: 25–265 nm [254]

TBAm = Tetrabutylammonium bromide; KOH = potassium hydroxide; NaOH = sodium hydroxide; LiOH = lithium hydroxide; KMnO4 = potassium permanganate.