Table 1.
In vitro and in vivo actions of dietary polysaccharides and their anti-diabetic potential.
| Source of Polysaccharides | Botanical Name/Composition | Model | Doses and Route of Administration | Negative Control | Investigation | Results | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mushroom | Cordyceps militaris | Wistar mice | 100 and 400 mg/kg, p.o. for 4 weeks | STZ (60 mg/kg, i.p) | FBG, Serum Insulin, OGTT, AST, ALT, BUN, CRE, LDL-C, TC, HDL-C, hepatic, renal, and pancreatic SOD, GSH-Px, CAT, and lipid peroxidation | Antioxidant and hypoglycemic effects | [23] |
| Mushroom | Cordyceps sinensis, Omphalia lapidescens, and Tricholomamongolicum | Wistar rats | 10 and 100 mg/kg, p.o. for 4 weeks | STZ (40 mg/kg, i.p) | FBG and PBG | Antioxidant and hypoglycemic effects | [24] |
| Mushroom | Cordyceps sinensis, Omphalia lapidescens, and Tricholomamongolicum. | SD male rats | 500 mg and 2000 mg/kg, p.o. for 3 weeks | STZ (40 mg/kg, i.p) | FBG, PK, SOD, GSH-Px, TG, TC, BUN, UA, CRE, and urine protein levels | Anti-diabetic and anti-nephropathic activities | [25] |
| Mushroom | Cordyceps militaris | Sprague-Dawley male rats | 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g/kg, p.o. for 4 weeks | STZ (40 mg/kg, i.p) | FBG, PK, SOD, GSH-Px, TG, TC, BUN, UA, CRE, urine protein, NAG, and MDA | Anti-diabetic and antinephritic activities | [26] |
| Mushroom | Cordyceps mycelia | Male BALB/c mice and male Sprague-Dawley rats | 200 mg, 400 mg/kg, p.o. for 1-week | STZ (60 mg/kg, i.p), Alloxan monohydrate (150 mg/kg, i.p.) | Blood glucose and insulin | Hypoglycemic activity | [27] |
| Mushroom | Cordyceps militaris | C57BL/6J mice | 360 mg/kg/p.o. for 8 weeks | HFD + STZ (60 mg/kg, i.p) + nicotinamide (180 mg/kg, i.p) | FBG, OGTT, IPITT, CRE, AGEs, TGF-β1, TC, TG, LDL-C, and HDL-C | Anti-diabetic and renoprotective activities | [28] |
| Mushroom | Paecilomyces hepiali | Sprague-Dawley male rats | 0.08, 0.4, and 2.0 g/kg/p.o. for 4 weeks | HFD + STZ (25 mg/kg, i.p) + nicotinamide (180 mg/kg, i.p) | Blood glucose, TC, LDL-C, insulin, PK, glycogen, SOD, MDA, GSH-Px IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α | Anti-diabetic and antinephritic Activities | [29] |
| Mushroom | Inonotus obliquus | HepG2 cells and insulin-resistant HepG2 cells | 10, 20, 40, 80, and 160 μg/mL, for 24 and 48 h. | - | Glucose, insulin | Hypoglycemic activity | [30] |
| Mushroom | Antrodia cinnamomea | - | 50 μL | - | α-glucosidase inhibitory activity | Anti-diabetic activity | [31] |
| Mushroom | Grifola frondosa | Male ICR mice, HepG2 | 75 and 150 mg/kg for 0, 14, and 28 days; 100 μg/mL | STZ (40 mg/kg, i.p) | Glucose, OGTT, insulin, IRS1, JNK1, PI3K, or GLUT4 | Anti-diabetic activity | [15,32] |
| Mushroom | Aronia melanocarpa, red ginseng, and shiitake mushroom | Male SD rats | 0.5, 1 g/kg bw | Pancreatectomy rats with 1 g dextrin/kg bw | Serum glucose, food intake, body weight, and OGTT | Anti-diabetic activity | [33] |
| Mushroom | Chroogomphus rutilus | Male SD rats | 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg bw, p.o. for 4 weeks | STZ (40 mg/kg, i.p) | α-glucosidase, blood glucose, SOD, GSH-Px, MDA, TC, TG, LDL-C, HDL-C, and MTT | Antioxidant, Hypoglycemic, Hypolipidemic, and Antitumor Activities | [34] |
| Mushroom | Lignosus rhinocerotis | Male SD rats | 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g/kg bw, p.o. for 8 weeks | STZ (35 mg/kg, i.v.) | Blood glucose, GSH, CAT, SOD, and LPO | Anti-diabetic activity | [35] |
| Mushroom | Agaricus brasiliensis and Ganoderma lucidum | Male SD rats | 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg bw, p.o. for 4 weeks | STZ (35 mg/kg, i.v.) | Blood glucose, GSH, CAT, SOD, LPO, TBARS, GSH-Px, and GSH-R | Anti-diabetic activity | [36] |
| Mushroom | Pleurotus Ostreatus | KK-Ay Mice | 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg bw, p.o. for 4 weeks | STZ (35 mg/kg, i.v.) | Blood glucose, AMPK, GLUT-4, Akt, and PKC | Anti-diabetic activity | [37] |
| Mushroom | Pleurotus Ostreatus | Rabbits | 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg for 4 weeks | Alloxan (120 mg/kg, p.o) | Blood glucose, ALP, γGT, ALT, AST, bilirubin, urea, BUN, CRE, Na, and K | Anti-diabetic activity | [38] |
| Mushroom | Inonotus obliquus | Male Kunming mic | 900 mg/kg for 4 weeks | STZ (60 mg/kg, i.p.) | Blood glucose, body weight, organ weight, glycogen, OGTT, TC, TG, LDL-C, HDL-C, PI3K, GLUT-4, and Akt | Anti-diabetic activity | [39] |
| Mushroom | Pleurotus citrinopileatus | In vitro | - | - | Pancreatic α-amylase, intestinal α-glucosidase, and ACE | Antioxidant, Hypoglycemic and Hypotensive Activities | [40] |
| Mushroom | Catathelasma ventricosum | Male ICR mice | 0.2 g/kg for 4 weeks | STZ (150 mg/kg, i.p.) | Blood glucose, TC, TG, LDL-C, and HDL-C | Anti-diabetic activity | [41] |
| Mushroom | Pleurotus ostreatus, Calocybe indica, and Volvariella volvacea | In vitro, in vivo (Male ICR mice) | 200 and 400 mg/kg for 6 weeks | STZ (150 mg/kg, i.p.) | α-amylase inhibition assay, glucose uptake by yeast cells, glucose adsorption capacity, and blood glucose | Anti-diabetic activity | [42] |
| Mushroom | Pleurotus eryngii | KKAy mice | 1 g/kg for 6 weeks | STZ (150 mg/kg, i.p.) | Blood glucose, insulin, FBS, OGTT, TC, TG, LDL-C, HDL-C, liver glycogen | Hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic activities | [43] |
| Grains | Foxtail Millet | Open-label, self-controlled clinical trial 64 subjects (27 male subjects and 37 female subjects) | 50–150 g of whole grain for week 6 and 12 | Diabetic patients | FBG, insulin, fructosamine, fasting C-peptide, TG, and TC HDL-C, LDL-C, apolipoprotein A1 and B, TNF-α, IL-6, leptin, GLP-1, blood pressure, body weight, waist circumference, and hip circumference | Anti-diabetic activity | [44] |
| Vegetable, fruit, and grain | Vegetable, fruit, and grain | 48,835 post-menopausal women | A 1:1:0.5–serving/day vegetable, fruit, food grains | Diabetic patients | Serum glucose, insulin, and waist circumference | Reduced the risk of diabetes | [45] |
| Whole Grain cereals | Whole grain cereals | A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | 50 g/day | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, insulin, and HbAlc | Improved the PBG and insulin homeostasis | [46] |
| Grain and Sprouted grain | Grain and sprouted grain | 12 male subjects | 50 g/day | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, insulin, and HbAlc | Only sprouted-grain improved PBG and insulin | [47] |
| Whole Grains muffins | Wheat, rice, corn, oat, and barley | 4 Male and 8 Female | 50 g/day | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, insulin, and HbAlc | Lowered the PBG | [48] |
| Whole grains bread | Chickpea-wheat composite bread | 13 female subjects | 50 g/day | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, insulin, and HbAlc | Reduced PBG | [49] |
| Whole grains bread | Maize | 30 male subjects | 50 g/day | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose | Reduced PBG | [50] |
| Sorghum and Wheat muffin | Sorghum and wheat flour | 10 male subjects | 50 g/day | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, insulin | Improved the PBG and insulin | [51] |
| Whole rye bread | Whole rye with white wheat bread | 6 males and 9 females | 50 g/day | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, insulin | Improved the insulin response | [52] |
| Oat | Oat | A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | 50 g/day | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, insulin | Improved glucose and insulin response | [53] |
| Oat and beta-glucan | Oat and beta-glucan | A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | - | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, HbA1c, and insulin | Improved glucose and insulin and HbA1c response | [54] |
| Whole grain rye with starch | Whole grain rye flour and rye kernels bread | 21 subjects | 50 g/day | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, OGTT, insulin, PYY, FFA, and IL-6 | Improved cardiometabolic variables and glucose | [55] |
| Whole grain oats | Whole grain oats | A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | - | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, OGTT, insulin, and TC | Cholesterol-lowering and anti-diabetic effects | [56] |
| Whole-grain rye and wheat bread | Whole-grain rye porridges and refined wheat bread | 21 subjects | 40, 55 g/day | Healthy Subjects | Serum glucose, postprandial plasma amino acids and short chain fatty acids | Suppressed appetite and improved glucose metabolism. | [57] |
| Canola oil-enriched bread supplement | Canola oil-enriched bread | 141 subjects | 31 g/day | Diabetic patients | HbA1c, blood pressure, Framingham CVD risk score, and reactive hyperemia index ratio | Improved glycemic control in T2DM | [58] |
| Grains | Monascus-fermented grains | Male SD rats | 300 mg/kg bw. For 16 weeks | High-fructose (60%, w/w) plus high-fat (20%, w/w) diet | OGTT, Insulin, insulin sensitivity index, TBARS, SOD, CAT, and GPx | Anti-diabetic effect by improving insulin resistance and hepatic antioxidant enzymes. | [59] |
| Whole grains and legumes | Whole grains and legumes | 39 males, 146 females | 30–70 g for 16 weeks | Diabetic patients | BMI, waist and hip ratio, TC, TG, LDL-C, HDL-C, FBS, insulin FFA, Plasma apolipoprotein A-V, and CRP | Anti-diabetic effects | [60] |
| DASH diet | fruits, vegetables, whole grains, low-fat dairy products, low in saturated fats, cholesterol, refined grains, and sweets | 52 pregnant women | 40 g for 4 weeks | Gestational Diabetic patients | Length, weight, and head circumference of infants | Improved gestational diabetes mellitus | [61] |
| Whole grains | Cereal, bread, rice, pasta, and muffin | 11 subjects | 6–10 servings/day for 6 weeks | Diabetic/obese patients | Insulin, blood glucose, and OGTT | Reduce the risk of T2DM and heart disease. | [62] |
| Vegetables | Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) | Male C57BL/6 mice | 50 mg/kg, p.o for 10 days | STZ (45 mg/kg, i.p.) | blood glucose, OGTT | Hypoglycemic effect | [63] |
| Vegetables | Red pepper and soybeans | Male SD rats | 5% powder supplement | STZ (45 mg/kg, i.p.) | FBS, OGTT, body weight, visceral fat, and serum leptin | Improves glucose homeostasis by reducing insulin resistance | [64] |
| Fruits and vegetables | Fruits and vegetables | 550 children and adolescents | 257, 227 g/day for 30 days | Diabetic patients | FBS, insulin, and HbA1c | Anti-diabetic effect | [50] |
| Vegetables | Purple carrots and purple potatoes | Obese Zucker rats | Purple carrot and potatoes supplemented a high-fat diet for 8 weeks. | - | Intraperitoneal glucose and insulin tolerance test and invasive hemodynamic tests | Purple vegetables improve insulin resistance and hypertension | [65] |
| Apricot Lychee | Prunus armeniaca Lychee chinensis | In vitro | - | - | α-glycosidase, aldose reductase, and antioxidant activity | Anti-diabetic effects | [66] |
| Blueberry | Vaccinium cyanococcus | ||||||
| Plum | Prunus salicina | ||||||
| Kiwi | Kiwifruit c.v. hayward | ||||||
| Lemon pulp | Citrus limon | ||||||
| Lemon peel | Citrus limon | ||||||
| Pear | Pyrus bretschneider | ||||||
| Wolfberry | Lycium chinensis | ||||||
| Watermelon | Citrullus lanatusus | ||||||
| Lettuce | Lactuca sativa | In vitro | - | - | α-glycosidase, aldose reductase, and antioxidant activity | Anti-diabetic effects | [66] |
| Cucumber | Cucumis sativus | ||||||
| Red onion | Allium cepa | ||||||
| Bitter gourd | Momordica charantia | ||||||
| Eggplant | Solanum melongena | ||||||
| Celery | Apium graveolens | ||||||
| Kelp | Laminaria japonica | ||||||
| Wax gourd | Benincasa pruriens | ||||||
| Garlic | Allium sativum | ||||||
| Tomato | Solanum lycopeersicum | ||||||
| Vegetables | Momordica charantia | SD rats | 50 mg/kg, p.o for 10 days | STZ (45 mg/kg, i.p.) | FBS, insulin, and HbA1c | Anti-diabetic effects | [67] |
Abbreviations: ACE-angiotensin converting enzyme; AGEs-advanced glycation end products; Akt-serine/threonine-specific protein kinase; ALP-alkaline phosphatase; ALT-alanine transaminase; AST-aspartate transaminase; BUN-blood urea nitrogen; CAT-catalase; CRE-creatinine; CRP-C-reactive protein; FBG-fasting blood glucose; FFA-free fatty acids; GLP-1-glucagon-like peptide-1; GLUT4-glucose transporter 4; GSH-Px-glutathione peroxidase; GSH-R-glutathione reductase; HbA1c-glycated hemoglobin; HDL-C-high density lipoprotein–C; HepG2-human liver cancer cell line; HFD-high-fat diet; IL-interleukin; IL-6-interleukin-6; IPITT-intraperitoneal insulin tolerance test; IRS1-insulin receptor substrate 1; JNK-c-Jun N-terminal kinases; K-potassium; LDL-C-low density lipoprotein–C; LPO-lipid peroxidation; MDA-malondialdehyde; MTT-3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium; Na-sodium; NAG-n-acetyl-β-d-glucosaminidase; OGTT-oral glucose tolerance test; PBG-postprandial glucose; PI3K-phosphoinositide 3-kinases; PK-pyruvate kinase; PKC-protein kinase C; PYY-peptide tyrosine tyrosine hormone; SD-Sprague-Dawley; SOD-superoxide dismutase; TC-total cholesterol; T2DM-type 2 diabetes; TG-triglycerides; TGF-β1-transforming growth factor-β1; TNF-α-tumor necrosis factor-α; UA-uric acid; γGT-gamma-glutamyltransferase; i.v-intravenous; i.p-intraperitoneal; b.w-body weight; DASH-dietary approaches to stop hypertension.