Table 3.
Summary of studies in which carotenoids had a beneficial effect on chronic liver diseases in cell lines, and human and animal models.
| Agent | Model | Main Results | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| β-carotene | Rat: carcinogenesis induced by AFB1 | ↑ Antioxidantes enzymes (GSH-Px, catalase, GST) and vitamin C ↓ Risk of toxicity due to AFB1 |
[120] |
| Alga Dunaliella bardawil (rich in (9Z)-β-carotene) | Mouse: fed high-fat diet, LDL receptor knockout mouse | ↓ Plasma cholesterol and atherogenesis (VLDL y LDL) ↓ Accumulation of fat and liver inflammation ↓ Levels of hepatic inflammatory genes (VCAM-1, IL-1α, MCP-1, INF-γ) |
[122] |
| Apricot (rich in β-carotene) | Rat: Hepatic steatosis and damage induced by CCL4 | ↓ Liver MDA ↑ Levels of total GSH, catalase, SOD and GSH-Px ↓ Oxidative stress ↓ Hepatic steatosis and liver damage |
[124] |
| Tomato “Campari” (rich in β-carotene and lycopene) | Zebrafish: Obesity induced by diet | ↓ SREBF1 in the Marn ↑ FOXO1 in the expression of genes ↓ Diet-induced obesity, dyslipidemia and hepatic steatosis |
[127] |
| Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (rich in β-carotene) | Rat: NASH induced by a high-fat diet | ↑ Modulation of NF-κB and the MAPK pathway ↓ Accumulation of liver fat, inflammatory liver response, fibrosis and oxidative stress ↑ Hepatoprotective properties |
[128] |
| Dietary carotenes and vitamin A | Human: patients with primary liver cancer | ↓ Risk of primary liver cancer | [129] |
| Lycopene | Rat: NASH induced by high-fat diet | ↓ Levels of CYP2E1 protein, MDA (plasma and liver) and TNF-α ↑ Hepatic GSH level ↓ Steatosis and inflammation |
[138] |
| Tomato juice | Rat: hypercholesterolemic and NAFLD induced by the diet | ↓ Levels of TG in plasma and isoprostanes in urine ↑ Acummulation of lycopene in the liver ↑ Relief of amino acid depletion ↑ Recovery of the redox balance in the liver ↑ Levels of L-carnitine ↑ Protective effect of NAFLD |
[139] |
| Tomato juice | Rat: NAFLD induced by a high-fat diet | ↓ Isoprostanes in urine, plasma TG and LDL ↑ Activity of mitochondrial β-oxidation and peroxisomal ↓ Steatosis |
[145] |
| Lycopene | SK-Hep-1 cells: PKC pathway mediated by ROS production. Mouse: Hepatotoxicity induced by APAP overdose |
↓ Production of ROS, NADPH oxidase and MMP-2, GSSG ↑ GSH and CAT |
[146] |
| Lycopene | Rat: NAFLD induced by a high-fat diet | ↓ ALT, AST, triglyceride, total cholesterol, MDA, LDL and FFA ↓ CYP2E1 and TNF-α ↑ GSH, SOD y HDL ↑ Protective effect on NAFLD |
[16] |
| Lycopene | Rat: NAFLD induced by a high-fat diet | ↓ liver weight, LDL and liver total cholesterol ↑ GSH-Px, SOD and CAT en the liver |
[141] |
| Lycopene | Mouse: liver injury induced by AFB1 | ↓ Acummulatio of AFB1-ADN adducts in the liver ↑ Activation of Nrf2 signaling ↑ Antioxidant potential and liver detoxification |
[150] |
| Tomato juice | Rat: hypercholesterolemic and NAFLD induced by the diet | ↑ Regulation of CD36, FXR and HNF4A
↓ Regulation of APOB and LPL ↓ Synthesis of fatty acids, triglycerides and cholesterol ↑ Levels of metabolites related to the antioxidant response |
[151] |
| Lutein | Guinea pig: Hepatic steatosis induced by a hypercholesterolemic diet | ↓ Hepatic free cholesterol ↓ Malondialdehyde and hepatic TNF-α ↓ Binding to the hepatic DNA of NF-κB |
[154] |
| Lutein | Rat: Hepatocellular carcinoma induced by N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) | ↓ ALT, AST, alkaline phosphatase in plasma and liver tissue ↑ GSH ↓ GGT ↑ UDP-glucoronyl transferase and glutathione-S-transferase |
[155] |
| Lutein | Rat: NAFLD induced by a high-fat diet | ↓ Liver total cholesterol and triglycerides ↑ HDL in serum ↓ ALT in serum ↑ Hepatic insulin sensitivity ↑ Hepatic fatty acids catabolism |
[156] |
| Lutein | Guinea pig: Hepatic steatosis induced by a hypercholesterolemic diet | ↓ Hepatic steatosis (evaluated histologically) ↓ Total hepatic cholesterol ↓ Plasma ALT and LDL activity |
[157] |
| β-cryptoxanthin | Mouse: Obese model | ↓ Body weight and abdominal adipose tissue ↓ Triglycerides and serum total cholesterol ↓ Inflammatory citokines ↑ Lipid metabolism and energy consumption |
[160] |
| β-cryptoxanthin | Mouse: NASH induced by a diet high in cholesterol and high in fat | ↓ Liver TBARS ↑ Suppresses the expression of the inducible LPS and TNF-α genes ↓ Inflammatory response (suppresses the activation of macrophages, T helper and citototoxic cells) |
[161] |
| β-cryptoxanthin | Mouse: Hepatic steatosis and NASH induced by the diet high in fat and cholesterol | ↓ Total content of hepatic macrophages and T cells | [162] |
| β-cryptoxanthin | Human: Patients with NAFLD (NASH and NAFL) | ↓ GGT, LDL and serum IL-6 ↑ SOD and serum IL-10 ↑ Antioxidant and anti-inflammtory activities |
[17] |
| α-carotene | Mouse: spontaneous hepatic carcinogenesis | ↓ Hepatomas | [163] |
| Zeaxanthin | Gerbil from Mongolia: NASH induced by a diet deficient in methionine and choline | ↓ Liver fibrosis ↓ Hepatic lipid hydroperoxides |
[164] |