Table 1.
Baseline population characteristics according to probiotic consumption (n = 38,802).
| No Exposure to Probiotics | Exposure to Probiotics | p Value | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Participants, n (%) | 33,719 (86.9%) | 5083 (13.1%) | n.a. |
| Socio-economic characteristics | |||
| Male gender, % | 50.2 % | 35.0 % | <0.001 * |
| Age, years ± SD | 46.0 ± 15.3 | 48.9 ± 13.2 | <0.001 * |
| Annual family income <$25000, % | 30.7% | 19.6% | <0.001 * |
| Education level less than 9th grade, % | 6.4% | 2.7% | <0.001 * |
| Ethnicity | <0.001 * | ||
| Non-Hispanic White, % | 68.4% | 79.5% | |
| Non-Hispanic Black, % | 11.9% | 5.4% | |
| Mexican American, % | 8.5% | 5.0% | |
| Other Hispanic, % | 5.2% | 4.1% | |
| Other ethnicities, % | 6.0% | 5.9% | |
| Risk factors | |||
| Current smokers, % | 20.2% | 7.6% | <0.001 * |
| Former smokers, % | 28.3% | 31.7% | 0.002 * |
| Alcohol consumption >20 g/day, % | 15.7% | 13.9% | 0.028 * |
| Physical activity level # | 0.028 * | ||
| Low | 28.8% | 26.9% | |
| Intermediate | 36.6% | 39.3% | |
| High | 34.6% | 33.8% | |
| Nutritional characteristics | |||
| Kcal/day, kcal ± SD | 2060.7 ± 648.9 | 2042.4 ± 529.3 | 0.163 |
| Carbohydrates/day, g/100 kcal ± SD | 12.3 ± 2.3 | 12.6 ± 1.8 | <0.001 * |
| Protein/day, g/100 kcal ± SD | 3.9 ± 0.9 | 4.2 ±0.8 | <0.001 * |
| Fiber/day, g/100 kcal ± SD | 0.8 ± 0.3 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | <0.001 * |
| Polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acids ratio ± SD | 0.7 ± 0.3 | 0.8 ± 0.3 | 0.001 * |
| Sodium per day, mg | 3389.2 ± 1272.3 | 3282.3 ± 1024.4 | <0.001 * |
| DASH score (0–9) | 2.66 ± 1.15 | 3.33 ± 1.12 | <0.001 * |
| Cardiometabolic parameters | |||
| BMI, kg/m2 | 28.5 ± 5.8 | 27.8 ± 5.1 | <0.001 * |
| HbA1c, % | 5.6 ± 0.8 | 5.5 ± 0.6 | <0.001 * |
| Glucose, mg/dL | 97.9 ± 28.4 | 96.0 ± 22.4 | 0.001 * |
| Systolic BP, mmHg | 122.8 ± 15.7 | 120.5 ± 13.9 | <0.001 * |
| Diastolic BP, mmHg | 71.2 ± 10.1 | 70.2 ± 8.4 | <0.001 * |
| HDL, mg/dL | 51.9 ± 13.6 | 56.7 ± 12.6 | <0.001 * |
| LDL, mg/dL | 116.5 ± 29.5 | 115.5 ± 25.5 | 0.398 |
| Triglycerides, mg/dL | 139.1 ± 100.1 | 121.1 ± 61.5 | <0.001 * |
BMI: body mass index; BP: blood pressure; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; n.a.: Not applicable; * statistically significant. # See methods regarding physical activity level definition.