Table 2.

Chemical modification of cardiac dECM scaffold for biomimetic cardiac patch

Species	Decellularization agents	Scaffold thickness	Cell types	Chemical modification method	In vitro	In vivo	Biological results	Refs
Porcine	1.1% NaCl and 0.7% NaCl; 0.05% Trypsin/0.02% EDTA; 1% Triton X-100/1% ammonium hydroxide	10 000 µm*	hMSCs; human umbilical vein endothelial cells	Decellularized ECM scaffold was coated with either 4 mg/ml gelatin or 10 µg/ml fibronectin or 100 µg/ml laminin by immersing the scaffold in the coating solution for 24 h	×		Chemically modified porcine cardiac tissue-derived dECM, when co-cultured with HUVECs and MSCs, has shown to support the cell growth and alignment on the surface and vasculature of reseeded scaffold	[100, 101]
Porcine	(1) 1% SDS; 1% Triton X-100; 0.1 mg/ml DNase I(2) 1.1% NaCl and 0.7% NaCl; 0.05% Trypsin/0.02% EDTA; 1% Triton X-100/1% ammonium hydroxide	3000 µm*	Adipose tissue-derived progenitor cells; porcine adipose tissue MSCs	Decellularized ECM was prepared by rehydrating the scaffold with RAD16-I peptide hydrogel followed by cell seeding using the suspension containing 10% sucrose solution.	×	×	Porcine dECM scaffold, when seeded with adipose tissue-derived progenitor cells, has shown to express endothelial marker isolectin B4 as well as cardiac markers including GATA4, connexin43 and cardiac troponin T. The cardiac dECM seeded with ATDPCs and ATMSCs, when implanted in a porcine MI model, has promoted neovascularization of the ischemic myocardium and resulted significant restoration of ventricular cardiac function	[102–104]
Human	10 mM Tris/0.1% EDTA; 0.5% SDS; 50 U/ml DNase and 1 U/ml RNase	300 ± 50 µm	Human mesenchymal progenitor cells	Composite scaffold was produced by seeding TGF-β-treated MPCs on dECM in a PBS solution containing 2% fibrinogen and 100 U/ml thrombin, followed by adding growth medium supplemented with 0.1 ng/ml of TGF-β		×	When used to treat the injured heart using a rat MI model, the composite scaffold promoted the formation of vascular networks in the infract bed, leading to functional recovery of left ventricular systolic dimensions and contractile properties as evidenced by echocardiography analysis	[105]

The asterisk sign (*) denotes the thickness of dECM before tissue decellularization. For these studies, the scaffold thickness after decellularization procedure has not been reported.