Table 1.
Studies that have primarily focused on either technical or physical aspects of the “set” position, block phase or first stance of a maximal effort sprint commencing from blocks and that have included a dependent measure of performance. The specific performance measure(s) adopted in each study are identified, along with an overview of the study design and the studied participants
| Study details | Participants | Variable(s) used as dependent measures of performance | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Studya | Primary focus of study | Design | Sex | Number | Ability levelb,c | Time to specific distancec or event | Velocity at specific distance or event | Acceleration over specific phase or at given instant | Power over specific phase |
| Dickinson [13] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group) | M | 26 | Trained sprinters |
Block exit 2.29 m |
|||
| Henry [6] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group) | M | 18 | 5.75–6.75 s for 45.72 m |
Block exit 4.57 m 9.14 m 45.72 m |
Block exit | ||
| Sigerseth and Grinaker [18] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group) | M | 28 | Physical education students |
9.14 m 18.29 m 27.43 m 36.58 m 45.72 m |
|||
| Stock [19] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group) | M | 26 | High school athletes |
18.29 m 45.72 m |
|||
| Menely and Rosemier [114] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group) | M | 30 | Physical education students |
9.14 m 27.43 m |
|||
| Baumann [1] | Block phase | Between-group comparison | M | 30 |
10.2–10.6 s (n = 12) 10.9–11.4 s (n = 8) 11.6–12.4 s (n = 10) |
Block exit 5 m 20 m |
Block exit | Push phase average and maximum | |
| Gagnon [115] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group) | F | 6 |
12.1–13.6 s (n = 4) 10.8–11.7 s for 80 m (n = 2) |
Block exit 50 m |
Block exit | Push phase average | |
| Mero et al. [26] | Block phase and first two stance phases | Between-group comparison | M | 25 |
10.8 ± 0.3 s (n = 8) 10.8 ± 0.4 s (n = 9) 11.5 ± 0.3 s (n = 8) |
Block exit |
Block exit 2.5 m |
Push phase average | |
| Hafez et al. [116] | Block phase | Multiple-single-subject comparison | M | 4 | 10.9–11.7 s | Block exit | |||
| Vagenas and Hoshizaki [53] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group) | M | 15 | Skilled sprinters |
Block exit 5 m 10 m 20 m |
Block exit | ||
| Mero [2] | Block phase and first stance | Cross-sectional analysis | M | 8 | 10.79 ± 0.21 s |
Block exit 10 m |
Block exit End of first stance |
||
| Mero and Komi [25] | Block phase and first stance | Cross-sectional analysis | M | 8 |
10.76 ± 0.19 s (Gp 1) 10.82 ± 0.23 s (Gp 2) |
Block exit |
Block exit End of first stance |
||
| Guissard et al. [22] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group) | M and F | 14 and 3 | 10.4–11.9 s (all) | Block exit | Block exit | Push phase average | |
| Schot and Knutzen [15] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group) | M and F | 6 and 6 | University intercollegiate track team |
Block exit End of first stance 2 m |
|||
| Mendoza and Schöllhorn [7] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group and multiple-single-subject) | M | 8 | 10.4–10.8 s | 10 m | Block exit | Push phase average | |
| Čoh et al. [29] | Block phase and first two steps | Cross-sectional analysis and between-sex comparison | M and F | 13 and 11 |
10.73 ± 0.2 s (M) 11.97 ± 2.6 s (F) |
5 m 10 m 20 m 30 m |
Block exit End of first and second stance |
||
| Reis and Fazenda [117] | “Set” position | Cross-sectional analysis | M | 15 | Sprinters |
20 m 60 m |
|||
| Salo and Bezodis [11] | Block phase (vs. standing) | Intervention (within-group) | M and F | 4 and 2 |
10.98 ± 0.40 s (M) 12.55 ± 0.35 s (F) |
25 m 50 m |
10 m 25 m |
||
| Fortier et al. [57] | Block phase and first two steps | Between-group comparison and intervention (within-group) | M and F | 16 and 4 |
10.46 ± 0.11 s (Gp 1) 11.07 ± 0.30 s (Gp 2) 7.60 ± 0.46 s (60 m; Gp 3) |
4 m |
Block exit Average first stance |
Push phase and first step peak | |
| Gutiérrez-Dávila et al. [56] | Block phase | Intervention (within-group) | M | 19 | 11.09 ± 0.30 s | Block exit | |||
| Mero et al. [23] | “Set” position | Intervention (within-group) | M | 9 | 10.86 ± 0.34 s | 20 m | Block exit | ||
| Bradshaw et al. [45] | “Set” position, block phase and first two steps | Group-based description | M | 10 | 10.87 ± 0.36 s |
Block exit 10 m |
|||
| Maulder et al. [102] | Block phase and first three steps | Intervention (within-group) | M | 10 | 10.87 ± 0.36 s |
Block exit 10 m |
Block exit | Push phase average | |
| Čoh et al. [52] | Block phase and first two steps | Single-subject analysis | F | 1 | 13.19 s (100 mH) | Block exit |
Block exit End of first and second stance |
||
| Bezodis et al. [5] | Block phase | Cross-sectional analysis | M | 12 | 11.30 ± 0.42 s |
10 m 20 m 30 m |
Block exit 10 m 20 m 30 m |
Push phase average | Push phase average |
| Bračič et al. [104] | Block phase | Cross-sectional analysis | M | 12 | 10.82 ± 0.25 s | Block exit | |||
| Slawinski et al. [24] | Block phase and first two steps | Between-group comparison | M | 12 |
10.27 ± 0.14 s (Gp 1) 11.31 ± 0.28 s (Gp 2) |
5 m 10 m |
Block exit |
Push phase average and peak First stance average and peak |
|
| Aerenhouts et al. [94] | Block phase (and first five steps) | Between-group comparison | M and F | 39 and 28 |
10.81 ± 0.40 s (M s) 11.29 ± 0.29 s (M j) 11.85 ± 0.24 s (F s) 12.54 ± 0.26 s (F j) |
Block exit |
Block exit 5 m 10 m 15 m 20 m |
Push phase average | |
| Charalambous et al. [70] | First stance phase | Single-subject analysis | M | 1 | 13.48 s (110 mH) | 5 m |
Change during first stance End of first stance 5 m |
||
| Slawinski et al. [16] | Block phase and first step | Intervention (within-group) | M and F | 6 and 3 |
10.58 ± 0.27 s (M) 11.61 ± 0.42 s (F) |
Block exit End of first stance 5 m 10 m |
Block exit End of first stance |
||
| Ille et al. [37] | Block phase | Intervention (within-group) and between-group comparison | M | 16 | Skilled sprinters, football players and basketball players |
Block exit 10 m |
|||
| Okkonen and Häkkinen [118] | Block phase | Cross-sectional analysis | M | 9 | 11.35 ± 0.29 s | 10 m | Block exit | ||
| Debaere et al. [30] | Block phase and first two steps | Group-based description | M and F | 11 and 10 |
10.62 ± 0.18 s (M) 11.89 ± 0.30 s (F) |
Block exit End of first and second stance |
|||
| Bezodis et al. [71] | First stance phase | Multiple-single-subject comparison | M and F | 2 and 1 |
10.14–10.28 s (M) 12.72 s (100 mH; F) |
First stance phase average | |||
| Milanese et al. [44] | Block phase and first two stance phases | Intervention (within-group) | M and F | 6 and 5 |
12.0 ± 0.1 s (M) 13.1 ± 0.9 s (F) |
Block exit |
Block exit Start of first and second stance |
||
| Otsuka et al. [46] | Block phase and first two steps | Between-group comparison | M | 29 |
10.87 ± 0.41 s (Gp 1) 11.31 ± 0.42 s (Gp 2) Nontrained (Gp 3) |
2 m | Push phase average | ||
| Taboga et al. [54] | Block phase | Intervention (within-group) and between-group comparison | M and F | 13 and 3 |
12.49 ± 1.11 s (M and F, able-bodied) 13.17 ± 1.31 s (M and F, with amputation) |
Block exit | Block exit | Push phase average | Push phase average |
| Debaere et al. [86] | First and second stance phases | Group-based description based on simulation model | M and F | 2 and 5 |
11.10–11.77 s (M) 12.05–12.36 s (F) |
Maximal acceleration during first stance phase | |||
| Otsuka et al. [20] | Block phase | Intervention (within-group) | M | 14 | 10.99 ± 0.40 s |
Block exit 2 m |
Block exit | Push phase average | Push phase average |
| Bezodis et al. [3] | Block phase | Cross-sectional analysis | M | 16 | 10.95 ± 0.51 s | Push phase average | |||
| Bezodis et al. [68] | First stance phase | Theoretical intervention based on simulation model | M | 1 | 10.28 s | First stance phase average | |||
| Chen et al. [119] | Block phase | Intervention (within-group) | M | 7 | 10.94 ± 0.20 s |
Block exit End of first stance (vertical component only) |
|||
| Schrödter et al. [21] | Block phase | Cross-sectional analysis and between-group comparison | M and F | 54 and 30 |
10.98 ± 0.58 s (M) 12.12 ± 0.68 s (F) |
Push phase average | |||
| Willwacher et al. [82] | Block phase | Cross-sectional analysis and between-group comparison | M and F | 103 and 51 |
9.58–14.00 s (all able-bodied) 12.24 ± 0.33 s (all athletes with amputation) |
Block exit | Block exit | Push phase average | |
| Ciacci et al. [27] | Block phase and first two steps | Between-group comparison | M and F | 10 and 10 |
10.03 ± 0.14 s (M 1) 10.74 ± 0.21 s (M 2) 11.10 ± 0.17 s (F 1) 11.95 ± 0.24 s (F 2) |
Block exit | |||
| Čoh et al. [120] | Block phase and first two steps | Between-group comparison | M | 12 |
10.66 ± 0.18 s (Gp 1) 11.00 ± 0.06 s (Gp 2) |
Block exit 4 m |
Block exit |
Push phase average First stance phase average |
|
| Debaere et al. [95] | Block phase through until start of second touchdown | Between-group comparison | M and F | 21 and 22 |
10.65 ± 0.07 s (M s) 11.21 ± 0.11 s (M j) 11.56 ± 0.08 s (M a) 11.87 ± 0.14 s (F s) 12.42 ± 0.25 s (F j) 12.86 ± 0.30 s (F a) |
End of first stance | |||
| Janowski et al. [98] | Block phase | Multiple-single-subject comparison | M | 2 | 10.33 and 10.39 s | 20 m | |||
| Piechota et al. [61] | Block phase | Between-group comparison | M | 54 | Expert sprinters and physical education students |
Block exit 5 m 10 m 30 m |
|||
| Aeles et al. [73] | First stance phase | Between-group comparison and cross-sectional analysis | M and F | 18 and 19 |
10.67 ± 0.14 s (Ms) 11.47 ± 0.34 s (Mj) 12.12 ± 0.41 s (Fs) 12.75 ± 0.36 s (F j) |
Δv during first stance | |||
| Brazil et al. [59] | Block phase | Cross-sectional analysis | M | 17 | 10.67 ± 0.32 s | Push phase average | |||
| Strutzenberger et al. [113] | First and second stance phases | Between-group comparison | M | 22 |
10.10–11.20 s (able-bodied) 11.70–12.70 s (with amputation) |
5 m 10 m |
First step average | ||
| Wild et al. [12] | First three steps | Cross-sectional analysis (and between-group comparison) | M | 18 | 10.60 ± 0.40 s | First stance phase average | |||
| Bezodis et al. [50] | Block phase | Cross-sectional analysis | M | 23 | 11.37 ± 0.37 s | Push phase average | |||
| Bezodis et al. [72] | First stance phase | Group-based description and between-group comparison | M | 17 |
10.66 ± 0.32 s (able-bodied) <12.50 s (T36) |
First stance phase average | |||
| Sandamas et al. [63] | Block phase and first stance | Intervention (within-group) and cross-sectional analysis | M and F | 8 and 2 |
11.03 ± 0.36 s (M) 11.6 ± 0.45 s (F) |
Block exit |
Start of first stance End of first stance |
Push phase average First stance phase average |
|
Gp group, mH meter hurdles, M male, F female, s senior, j junior (< 18 years), a adolescent (< 16 years), T36 paralympic athlete in T36 category
aStudies are included in chronological order. Although some studies (e.g., Wild et al. [12], Debaere et al. [86]) also included acceleration or power measures in subsequent steps, these measures were only included in the respective studies because they also focused on technical aspects during these subsequent steps, and thus these later measures are deemed irrelevant for the purposes of this table. Kistler [14] was not included in this table because, although it investigated a technical “set” position intervention, the dependent measure was a representation of mean pressure exerted against the blocks. Cavagna et al. [121] was not included in this table as it focused on the energetics over 30 m rather than specifically on the “set” position, block phase or first stance, but it was the first study to consider average external power as an outcome measure
bAbility levels of participants are reported as 100 m personal best times (to the precision reported in the original study) where possible. All other descriptors are verbatim from the methods section of the cited study
cAll distances have been converted into metric units