TABLE 1.
Environmental factors (included in the multivariable model) measured during the first 2 y of life by site in the MAL-ED project (n = 813)1
| Variable | Dhaka, Bangladesh (n = 160) | Vellore, India (n = 173) | Bhaktapur, Nepal (n = 113) | Naushero Feroze, Pakistan (n = 153) | Fortaleza, Brazil (n = 49) | Venda, South Africa (n = 109) | Haydom, Tanzania (n = 56) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal factors | |||||||
| Maternal reasoning (Raven's score, 6–8 mo) | 13 (10, 22) | 34 (28, 40) | 34 (28, 40) | 14 (8, 33) | 36 (32, 41) | 35 (29, 40) | 38 (36, 42) |
| Child health | |||||||
| Maternally reported illness (proportion of d, 0–24 mo) | 0.52 (0.42, 0.64) | 0.41 (0.28, 0.53) | 0.14 (0.10, 0.21) | 0.78 (0.64, 0.88) | 0.042 (0.03, 0.07) | 0.04 (0.02, 0.07) | 0.09 (0.06, 0.13) |
| Pathogen detection rate (detections/surveillance stool) | 1.10 (0.94, 1.30) | 1.00 (0.86, 1.40) | 0.76 (0.62, 1.00) | 1.60 (1.30, 1.90) | 1.20 (0.93, 1.40) | 0.69 (0.50, 0.86) | 1.30 (1.10, 1.60) |
| Bacterial pathogen detection rate (detections/surveillance stool) | 0.92 (0.75, 1.10) | 0.79 (0.62, 1.00) | 0.62 (0.50, 0.79) | 1.10 (0.93, 1.30) | 1.00 (0.86, 1.20) | 0.50 (0.38, 0.64) | 1.00 (0.81, 1.20) |
| NEO (nmol/L)2 | 6.9 (6.6, 7.2) | 7.4 (7.2, 7.7) | 7.3 (7.2, 7.5) | 6.2 (6.0, 6.4) | 7.4 (7.2, 7.6) | 8.2 (8.0, 8.4) | 6.6 (6.3, 6.9) |
| TfR (mg/L)2,3 | 5.8 (4.6, 8.2) | 4.5 (3.5, 6.3) | 8.8 (7.2, 12.0) | 4.9 (3.6, 7.8) | 9.5 (7.7, 11.0) | 4.2 (2.7, 5.8) | 4.3 (3.6, 6.1) |
| Diet from complementary foods | |||||||
| Total energy (kcal/d) | 330 (270, 400) | 730 (600, 880) | 420 (340, 520) | 640 (490, 780) | 980 (840, 1100) | 880 (750, 1000) | 990 (880, 1100) |
| Animal source protein (g/d) | 3.5 (2.4, 5.1) | 8.2 (5.3, 15.0) | 5.0 (3.2, 7.7) | 7.3 (4.4, 11.0) | 33.0 (29.0, 39.0) | 11.0 (8.5, 14.0) | 9.7 (5.0, 14.0) |
| Vitamin A (μg/d) | 52 (36, 77) | 180 (120, 280) | 85 (61, 110) | 160 (100, 240) | 930 (750, 1100) | 370 (270, 540) | 130 (93, 180) |
| Vitamin B-12 (μg/d) | 0.36 (0.25, 0.57) | 0.62 (0.41, 0.92) | 0.51 (0.31, 0.82) | 0.73 (0.46, 1.30) | 4.60 (3.90, 5.40) | 1.10 (0.60, 1.60) | 1.10 (0.61, 1.70) |
| Vitamin D (μg/d) | 1.1 (0.7, 1.5) | 0.1 (0.0, 0.2) | 0.1 (0.1, 0.2) | 0.1 (0.1, 0.1) | 5.4 (4.1, 7.1) | 1.2 (0.7, 2.4) | 0.0 (0.0, 0.0) |
| Zinc (mg/d) | 1.1 (0.9, 1.4) | 2.8 (2.3, 3.7) | 1.4 (1.1, 1.8) | 2.0 (1.5, 2.6) | 9.0 (7.1, 11.0) | 6.1 (4.9, 7.3) | 5.2 (4.7, 5.9) |
| Iron (mg/d) | 1.3 (1.0, 1.7) | 2.3 (2.1, 2.8) | 1.3 (1.1, 1.7) | 2.0 (1.7, 2.7) | 13.0 (11.0, 17.0) | 7.9 (6.8, 9.9) | 8.1 (6.9, 9.0) |
| Socioeconomic and home environment | |||||||
| HOME child cleanliness score (24 mo) | 4 (4, 4) | 3 (2, 4) | 4 (4, 4) | 3 (1, 4) | 4 (3, 4) | 4 (4, 4) | 3 (1, 3) |
| Mean monthly household income (USD) | 120 (91, 150) | 72 (58, 98) | 130 (100, 210) | 140 (91, 220) | 350 (320, 420) | 240 (180, 390) | 21 (15, 37) |
| Maternal education (y) | 5 (2, 7) | 8 (4, 9) | 10 (6, 12) | 2 (0, 5) | 10 (8, 12) | 11 (9, 12) | 7 (3, 7) |
1
Values are median (25th, 75th percentiles). HOME, Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment; MAL-ED, The Etiology, Risk Factors, and Interactions of Enteric Infections and Malnutrition and the Consequences for Child Health and Development Project; NEO, neopterin; TfR, transferrin receptor.
2
Log scale.
3
Adjusted for inflammation.