Table 1.

Patient characteristics

Characteristic	Total Cohort (N = 1,097)
Age, mean ± SD, y	51.80 ± 11.34
Race/ethnicity, No. (%)*
White	166 (15.1)
Black	351 (32.0)
Hispanic	357 (32.5)
Other	223 (20.3)
Female, No. (%)	606 (55.2)
Baseline dose, median (IQR), MME	90.0 (46.9–197.5)
Concurrent benzodiazepines, No. (%)	211 (19.2)
Medical comorbidities, No. (%)†
0–1	216 (19.7)
2–3	369 (33.6)
4+	512 (46.7)
English speaking, No. (%)	940 (85.7)
Year of cohort entry, median (IQR)	2009 (2008–2011)
Tobacco use disorder, No. (%)	376 (34.3)
Alcohol use disorder, No. (%)	100 (9.1)
Nonopioid drug use disorder, No. (%)	289 (26.3)
Opioid abuse, No. (%)	24 (2.2)
Mental health disorder, No. (%)‡	653 (59.5)
Pain diagnosis category, No. (%)§
Extremity	853 (77.8)
Neck	146 (13.3)
Headache	296 (27.0)
Back	834 (76.0)
Neuropathic	415 (37.8)
Abdomen	386 (35.2)
Chest	287 (26.2)

IQR = interquartile range; MME = morphine-milligram equivalents.

^*Mutually exclusive categories based on separate self-identified race and ethnicity variables.

^†Calculated using modified Elixhauser category diagnosis coding algorithm developed by Quan et al. [40].

^‡Based on provider ICD-9 coding, including codes for anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, or schizophrenia.

^§Based on provider ICD-9 coding, categorizations based on the approach of Larochelle et al. [41]. Patients may have multiple pain diagnoses.