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. 2019 Aug 8;10:1901. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01901

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Copyright © 2019 Pieters, Cappariello, van den Bosch, van Lent, Teti and van de Loo.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Schematic cartoon of macrophage-derived EVs carrying alarmins impacting osteoclasts. Tissue-resident (1), circulating (2) and osteal macrophages (3) can secrete EVs carrying alarmins (A). These vesicles can interact with bone cells, including osteoclasts (4), in a number of different ways (B). Vesicles can be internalized (a), fuse with the cell membrane (b) or ligands present on the outer membrane of the vesicle can interact with receptors on the cellular membrane (c). The composition and relative quantities of alarmins on macrophage-derived EVs will determine their functional effects.