. 2019 Jul 24;16(15):2644. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16152644

Table 1.

Summary of evidence.

Author/Year	Description of Intervention	Outcomes
Wittekind et al., (2015) [41]	Web-based Approach - Avoidance Task (AAT)	Bias present and subjected to manipulation. Significant reduction in number of cigarettes smoked F = 3.55, p = 032 and compulsion F = 3.32, p = 0.039 among participants who received intervention versus control. Reduction of cigarette dependence and compulsive drive for smoking most significant in those assigned to the standard Approach - Avoidance Task (AAT).
Wittekind et al., (2015) [41]	N = 257 smokers (Demographic information not specified)
Elfeddali et al., (2016) [42]	Web-based Attentional Bias Modification, ABM training (Visual Probe task)	The ABM training had no significant effect regarding bias reduction and no behavioral effects in the whole sample of smokers (p>.15). Subsample analyses revealed a significant positive effect on continued abstinence in heavy smokers only, OR = 3.15; p = 0.02. ABM effects did not generalize to that of approach bias.
	Approach bias using reaction time paradigms
	N = 434 Dutch adults
Kerst & Waters (2014) [44]	Attentional Retraining (AR) via Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)	Reduction in attentional bias PE = 31.4, p = 0.01, d = 0.69, and overall craving for smoking PE = 0.77, p = 0.04.
Kerst & Waters (2014) [44]	N = 60 adult smokers in United States of America (USA)
Robinson et al., (2017) [45]	Attentional Retraining (AR) via Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)	Attentional biases were reduced in AR group versus control, F = 9.20, p = 003. The reduction in attention bias did not correspond to a reduction in craving or biological measures of smoking/ cigarettes smoked.
Robinson et al., (2017) [45]	N= 64 African American adults
Wittekind, Lüdecke and Cludius, (2019) [43]	Web-based approach-bias modification	Approach bias modification (ABM) training group demonstrated reduced daily consumption of cigarettes immediately after training compared with a wait list control, t(32) = 2.89, p = 0.007, but no differences were observed at the 6-month follow-up period.
Wittekind, Lüdecke and Cludius, (2019) [43]	N = 149 German adults	No consistent change in bias emerged through training, and no support for it being a stand-alone intervention for smoking.