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. 2019 Aug 3;20(15):3794. doi: 10.3390/ijms20153794

Table 2.

Biofilm assays suitable for the main categories of anti-biofilm surfaces. The anti-biofilm surfaces are categorized according to Cattò et al. [36].

Topic Method In Situ Ex Situ Surface Chemistry Modification Surface Topography Modification Surface with Microstructure Antimicrobial Coating Antimicrobial-Releasing Surface Antimicrobial-Responsive Surface Covalent Immobilization of Antimicrobials Metal Coating Nanoparticles Based Materials Anti-Biofilm Biocide-Free Surfaces
Viable cellular biomass Plate count assay
Biomarkers quantification (Phospholipid fatty acids, ergosterol)
Metabolic colorimetric dyes
ATP bioluminescence
Isothermal microcalorimetry
Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy
Propidium monoazide-qPCR
Total (viable and not viable) cellular biomass Chamber counting
Dyes binding
Biomarker quantification (total organic carbon, proteins, chlorophyll)
Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (q-PCR)
Flow-based cell counting
Total biofilm (cellular biomass + EPS) Dry weight
Optical density
Dye-based methods
Colour measurements
EPS matrix Proteins quantification
Polysaccharides quantification
Extracellular DNA quantification
Antibody microarrays
Fluorescent microscopies
Spectroscopic techniques (ATR-IR, Raman, SERS)
Advanced techniques (HPLC, LC–UV-ESI-MS/MS, GC/MS, NMR, TXRF, ICP-MS)
Identification and spatial distribution of biofilm members FISH and FISH-based techniques
Immunofluorescence detection
Biofilm morphology Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM, FRAP, FCS, FLIM)
Multiphoton microscopy (MPM)
Electronic microscopies (SEM, TEM, cryo-SEM, ESEM, FIB-SEM, ASEM)
Raman microscopy (RM, CRM)
Scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM)
Super-resolution microscopies (STED, GSD, RESOLFT, PALM, STORM, SIM, SSIM)
Optical coherence tomography (OCT)
Mechanical and physical properties Atomic force microscopy (AFM, AFM-SCFS)
Rheometry (macro and micro-reometry, SPT, MPT)
Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM, QCM-D)
Surface plasma resonance (SPR)
Fluid dynamic gauging (FDG)
Microsensors
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR, MRI, PFG-NMR)