Table 3.
Inverse probability of censoring weighted unadjusted Cox proportional hazard model of factors associated with time to self-reported past year heroin use among veterans receiving prescription opioids from the VA, participating in VACS, 2002–2012
| Characteristic | CHR*† (95% CI) | P – value |
|---|---|---|
| Receipt of High-Dose Opioid Rx from the VA (ref: low dose) | 2.52 (1.69–3.76) | <0.001 |
| Receipt of Long-term Opioid Rx From the VA (ref: short-term) | 0.87 (0.56–1.35) | 0.531 |
| MEDD of Opioid Prescription (ref: low dose (1–50mg)) | ||
| Medium Dose (50–90mg) | 1.40 (0.83–2.35) | 0.211 |
| High Dose (≥90mg) | 2.58 (1.73–3.85) | <0.001 |
| Sex (ref: Female) | 2.22 (0.80–6.15) | 0.126 |
| Age (ref: ≤42 years) | ||
| 43 – 49 years | 1.16 (0.59–2.30) | 0.659 |
| 50 – 56 years | 1.25 (0.84–1.88) | 0.273 |
| ≥57 years | 0.54 (0.25–1.16) | 0.113 |
| HIV (infected versus uninfected) | 1.62 (1.12–2.35) | 0.010 |
| HCV (infected versus uninfected) | 7.81 (6.17–9.88) | <0.001 |
| Race (ref: White) | ||
| Black | 3.13 (1.96–4.99) | <0.001 |
| Hispanic | 2.38 (0.92–6.18) | 0.074 |
| Other | 4.54 (2.65–7.78) | <0.001 |
| Education (ref: High School or Less) | ||
| Some College or Greater | 0.56 (0.42–0.76) | <0.001 |
| Currently Employed (yes versus no) | 0.65 (0.53–0.79) | <0.001 |
| Gross Annual Income (ref: <$6,000) | ||
| $6,000 - $11,999 | 0.72 (0.57–0.91) | 0.006 |
| $12,000 - $24,999 | 0.41 (0.26–0.65) | <0.001 |
| ≥$25,000 | 0.30 (0.21–0.43) | <0.001 |
| Marital Status (ref: Married/Living w/Partner) | ||
| Divorced/Separated/Widowed | 1.73 (1.35–2.21) | <0.001 |
| Never Married | 1.40 (0.90–2.18) | 0.130 |
| PTSDᶲ (ever diagnosis vs. none) | 1.62 (1.22–2.16) | <0.001 |
| Depressionᶲ (ever diagnosis vs. none) | 1.77 (1.11–2.82) | 0.017 |
| Pain Interference in Daily Lifeᶲ (any vs. none) | 1.57 (1.13–2.17) | 0.007 |
| Unhealthy alcohol useᶲ, Past Year (AUDIT-C score ≥ 3 or 4) | 2.17 (1.48–3.20) | <0.001 |
| Smoker (ref: Never) | ||
| Current | 4.04 (1.71–9.54) | 0.001 |
| Former | 1.32 (0.60–2.89) | 0.494 |
| Marijuana Useᶲ, Past Year (ref: none) | 5.55 (3.58–8.61) | <0.001 |
| Cocaine Useᶲ, Past Year (ref: none) | 31.48 (19.35–51.21) | <0.001 |
| Stimulant Useᶲ, Past Year (ref: none) | 18.82 (10.73–33.00) | <0.001 |
| Any Injection Drug Use, Lifetime (ref: none) | 5.75 (4.08–8.11) | <0.001 |
| Opioid Use Disorder (diagnosis vs. none) | 9.99 (7.03–14.19) | <0.001 |
| Ever stayed in homeless shelter (ref: no) | 2.19 (1.58–3.05) | <0.001 |
| Number of close friends/family (ref: none) | ||
| 1–4 | 0.55 (0.34–0.87) | 0.012 |
| ≥ 5 | 0.38 (0.20–0.72) | 0.003 |
Note:
*
Crude Hazard Ratio
†
Using robust sandwich estimator
HIV = human immunodeficiency virus; HCV = hepatitis C virus; PTSD = post-traumatic stress disorder
ᶲ
Time-updated variable; Rx=prescription