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. 2019 Aug 13;9:292. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00292

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Copyright © 2019 Duan, Xia, Nandre, Zhang and Zhu.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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The mechanisms that underpin LT-mediated enhancement of bacterial adherence. Both LTA and LTB subunits are required for LT-mediated enhancement of bacterial adherence. The LTA subunit improves bacterial adherence predominantly by decreasing the cell membrane surface charge and the expression of antimicrobial peptides, increasing the expression of adhesins on the surface, and altering host cell structure. The LTB subunit facilitates bacterial adherence mainly by forming the “OMVs-LT-GM1” bridge after interaction with the GM1 receptors. Alteration of the host cell membrane can also enhance bacterial adherence.