Table 1.

Bioprinting methods that have been used to develop vascular grafts and vascularized constructs.

Vascular graft 3D printing strategies	3D printing ASTM process category	Material	Advantages	Disadvantages	Reference
Extrusion bioprinting	Material extrusion	Synthetic and natural biomaterials	Commonly used method with well characterized procedure. Printing resolution up to 200 μm	Bioinks have low cell densities and pressure of nozzle may be harmful to cells	32, 47, 49
Biomaterial-free extrusion bioprinting		None (cells & spheroids)	Increase cell-cell contact, cellular signaling, biomimicry, preservation of cellular fates	Poor mechanical properties	32, 50–53
Inkjet bioprinting	Material jetting	Synthetic and natural biomaterials	Single-cell printing resolution	Low cell density designs. Challenge to implement due to clogging of nozzles	47, 61, 62
Laser-assisted bioprinting	Not applicable	Synthetic and natural biomaterials	Micro-scale printing resolution & additional computer assisted controls	Less common method. Requires rapid gelation of materials after printing, thus tedious process	47, 65, 66