Table 2.
Regression results of determinants of antibiotic use from public, private and informal sources
| Site Model number |
Confirmed antibiotic use episodes | Confirmed and potential antibiotic use episodes | ||||||||||
| Public providers | Private providers | Informal providers | Public providers | Private providers | Informal providers | |||||||
| CR (1) | SAL (2) | CR (3) | SAL (4) | CR (5) | SAL (6) | CR (7) | SAL (8) | CR (9) | SAL (10) | CR (11) | SAL (12) | |
| Independent variables | ||||||||||||
| Would not buy antibiotics over the counter | 0.045* (−0.01 to 0.10) |
0.168** (0.02 to 0.32) |
0.074 (−0.02 to 0.16) |
−0.040 (−0.13 to 0.05) |
−0.050 (−0.11 to 0.01) |
−0.008 (−0.09 to 0.08) |
0.117** (0.01 to 0.23) |
0.530*** (0.16 to 0.90) |
0.151* (−0.03 to 0.33) |
−0.095 (−0.33 to 0.14) |
−0.031 (−0.10 to 0.04) |
0.021 (−0.14 to 0.18) |
| Prefers antibiotics over alternatives | −0.023 (−0.08 to 0.03) |
−0.017 (−0.12 to 0.08) |
−0.124** (−0.22 to −0.03) |
−0.009 (−0.10 to 0.08) |
0.033 (−0.02 to 0.08) |
−0.014 (−0.09 to 0.07) |
−0.026 (−0.17 to 0.12) |
−0.222* (−0.44 to 0.00) |
−0.161* (−0.35 to 0.03) |
0.054 (−0.18 to 0.28) |
0.005 (−0.07 to 0.08) |
0.044 (−0.10 to 0.19) |
| Does not keep antibiotics for future use | −0.049* (−0.10 to 0.00) |
−0.008 (−0.11 to 0.09) |
−0.060 (−0.14 to 0.02) |
−0.013 (−0.12 to 0.09) |
−0.024 (−0.08 to 0.03) |
0.037 (−0.07 to 0.15) |
−0.073 (−0.20 to 0.05) |
0.185 (−0.18 to 0.55) |
−0.056 (−0.25 to 0.14) |
0.056 (−0.26 to 0.37) |
−0.049 (−0.12 to 0.02) |
−0.050 (−0.21 to 0.11) |
| Knows that antibiotic resistance can spread | 0.041 (−0.05 to 0.13) |
−0.088 (−0.35 to 0.17) |
0.030 (−0.11 to 0.17) |
−0.051 (−0.34 to 0.24) |
0.035 (−0.04 to 0.11) |
−0.155*** (−0.25 to −0.06) |
0.068 (−0.15 to 0.29) |
−0.355 (−1.53 to 0.82) |
−0.060 (−0.25 to 0.13) |
−0.138 (−0.73 to 0.46) |
0.013 (−0.09 to 0.11) |
−0.247*** (−0.39 to −0.10) |
| Aware of antibiotics | −0.028 (−0.12 to 0.07) |
0.101* (−0.00 to 0.20) |
0.109** (0.01 to 0.21) |
0.017 (−0.08 to 0.11) |
−0.135 (−0.38 to 0.10) |
0.064** (0.01 to 0.12) |
0.093 (−0.20 to 0.39) |
0.185 (−0.28 to 0.65) |
−0.197 (−0.78 to 0.39) |
−0.346 (−0.94 to 0.25) |
−0.073 (−0.33 to 0.18) |
0.130* (−0.00 to 0.26) |
| Aware of drug resistance† | −0.041 (−0.11 to 0.03) |
0.056 (−0.08 to 0.20) |
0.056 (−0.03 to 0.14) |
0.086 (−0.04 to 0.21) |
0.016 (−0.01 to 0.05) |
0.014 (−0.09 to 0.12) |
−0.143* (−0.29 to 0.01) |
−0.041 (−0.39 to 0.31) |
−0.063 (−0.33 to 0.20) |
0.113 (−0.16 to 0.38) |
−0.024 (−0.09 to 0.04) |
−0.027 (−0.20 to 0.14) |
| Female | −0.005 (−0.06 to 0.06) |
0.086* (−0.01 to 0.18) |
−0.005 (−0.09 to 0.08) |
−0.064 (−0.17 to 0.04) |
0.035 (−0.02 to 0.09) |
0.049 (−0.03 to 0.13) |
−0.122 (−0.27 to 0.03) |
0.168 (−0 09 to 0.42) |
0.001 (−0.19 to 0.20) |
−0.296* (−0.59 to 0.00) |
0.028 (−0.04 to 0.09) |
0.181** (0.03 to 0.33) |
| Age | −0.001 (−0.00 to 0.00) |
−0.001 (−0.00 to 0.00) |
0.003* (−0.00 to 0.01) |
−0.001 (−0.00 to 0.00) |
−0.002* (−0.00 to 0.00) |
0.002 (−0.00 to 0.00) |
0.001 (−0.00 to 0.01) |
−0.001 (−0.01 to 0.01) |
0.009** (0.00 to 0.02) |
−0.004 (−0.01 to 0.00) |
−0.001 (−0.00 to 0.00) |
0.007** (0.00 to 0.01) |
| Education (years) | −0.002 (−0.01 to 0.01) |
−0.012* (−0.02 to 0.00) |
0.004 (−0.01 to 0.02) |
0.012 (−0.00 to 0.03) |
−0.006** (−0.01 to −0.00) |
0.010 (−0.00 to 0.02) |
0.001 (−0.01 to 0.02) |
−0.001 (−0.05 to 0.05) |
0.015 (−0.01 to 0.04) |
0.018 (−0.01 to 0.05) |
−0.001 (−0.01–0.01) |
0.010 (−0.01–0.03) |
| Speaking Thai/Lao | 0.161*** (0.07 to 0.25) |
0.251*** (0.10 to 0.40) |
0.005 (−0.12 to 0.13) |
−0.010 (−0.12 to 0.10) |
0.019 (−0.02 to 0.06) |
0.058 (−0.01 to 0.13) |
−0.016 (−0.46 to 0.43) |
0.161 (−0.27 to 0.59) |
−0.336 (−0.79 to 0.12) |
−0.005 (−0.30 to 0.29) |
0.033 (−0.05 to 0.12) |
0.152** (0.01 to 0.30) |
| Wealth Index | −0.179 (−0.42 to 0.06) |
−0.105 (−0.47 to 0.26) |
−0.001 (−0.28 to 0.28) |
0.340* (−0.01 to 0.69) |
0.158** (0.01 to 0.31) |
−0.121 (−0.35 to 0.10) |
−0.417*(−0.90 to 0.06) | −1.073* (−2.26 to 0.12) |
0.323 (−0.30 to 0.95) |
0.505 (−0.30 to 1.31) |
0.241** (0.02 to 0.46) |
0.065 (−0.73 to 0.86) |
| Buddhist religion | −0.016 (−0.11 to 0.08) |
−0.065 (−0.29 to 0.16) |
−0.074 (−0.21 to 0.06) |
−0.031 (−0.18 to 0.12) |
0.010 (−0.02 to 0.04) |
0.028 (−0.06 to 0.12) |
−0.033 (−0.22 to 0.16) |
0.037 (−0.40 to 0.47) |
−0.122 (−0.44 to 0.19) |
−0.031 (−0.35 to 0.29) |
0.017 (−0.05 to 0.08) |
−0.021 (−0.23 to 0.19) |
| Thai/Lao nationality | −0.030 (−0.13 to 0.07) |
−0.140 (−0.53 to 0.25) |
−0.069 (−0.24 to 0.10) |
0.013 (−0.11 to 0.13) |
−0.003 (−0.06 to 0.06) |
0.088 (−0.03 to 0.21) |
0.009 (−0.37 to 0.39) |
0.003 (−0.43 to 0.44) |
0.005 (−0.52 to 0.53) |
−0.118 (−0.46 to 0.22) |
−0.078 (−0.24 to 0.09) |
−0.603 (−1.95 to 0.74) |
| Majority ethnic group (Thai/Lao Loum) | 0.033 (−0.04 to 0.11) |
0.169* (−0.02 to 0.36) |
0.065 (−0.04 to 0.17) |
−0.059 (−0.19 to 0.07) |
0.050** (0.01 to 0.09) |
−0.039 (−0.14 to 0.06) |
0.049 (−0.11 to 0.21) |
0.360* (−0.04 to 0.76) |
−0.044 (−0.27 to 0.18) |
0.118 (−0.20 to 0.44) |
0.035 (−0.03 to 0.10) |
0.030 (−0.17 to 0.23) |
| Self-rated severity (1=mild, 2=medium, 3=severe) | 0.063*** (0.02 to 0.10) |
0.009 (−0.08 to 0.09) |
0.002 (−0.05 to 0.05) |
0.062 (−0.02 to 0.14) |
0.009 (−0.02 to 0.04) |
0.023 (−0.03 to 0.08) |
0.077 (−0.02 to 0.17) |
0.254** (0.01 to 0.50) |
0.068 (−0.06 to 0.20) |
0.107 (−0.17 to 0.39) |
0.065** (0.01 to 0.12) |
−0.038 (−0.20 to 0.12) |
| Log of duration of illness episode (days) | 0.060*** (0.02 to 0.10) |
0.036 (−0.01 to 0.08) |
0.076*** (0.03 to 0.12) |
0.046 (−0.01 to 0.10) |
0.003 (−0.02 to 0.02) |
−0.025 (−0.07 to 0.02) |
0.275*** (0.16 to 0.39) |
0.507*** (0.27 to 0.74) |
0.257*** (0.10 to 0.41) |
0.234** (0.05 to 0.42) |
0.005 (−0.03 to 0.04) |
−0.012 (−0.13 to 0.10) |
| Constant | −0.007 (−0.23 to 0.21) |
−0.123 (−0.55 to 0.30) |
−0.152 (−0.38 to 0.08) |
−0.198 (−0.46 to 0.07) |
0.117 (−0.12 to 0.35) |
−0.207* (−0.43 to 0.02) |
−0.022 (−0.61 to 0.56) |
−0.767 (−1.82 to 0.29) |
−0.181 (−1.08 to 0.72) |
0.029 (−1.17 to 1.23) |
−0.006 (−0.37 to 0.35) |
0.199 (−1.18 to 1.58) |
| Model statistics | ||||||||||||
| Number | 604 | 356 | 604 | 356 | 604 | 356 | 604 | 356 | 604 | 356 | 604 | 356 |
| R2 | 0.102 | 0.106 | 0.080 | 0.133 | 0.104 | 0.046 | 0.143 | 0.218 | 0.126 | 0.136 | 0.052 | 0.095 |
| F statistic | 2.29*** | 3.34*** | 1.89** | 1.79** | 0.89 | 1.48 | 2.82*** | 4.57*** | 2.41*** | 1.30 | 1.18 | 2.27*** |
| Chow test | (2)–(1)=0 | (4)–(3)=0 | (6)–(5)=0 | (8)–(7)=0 | (10)–(9)=0 | (12)–(11)=0 | ||||||
| F statistic | 1.33 | 2.05** | 1.08 | 1.65* | 1.97** | * | 1.55* | |||||
Source: Authors’ analysis of survey data.
Notes: Illness episode level, including completed illnesses experienced by respondent or child under their supervision, excluding incomplete episodes. Population-weighted statistics, accounting for complex survey design. 95% CIs in parentheses.
*p<0.1, **p<0.05, ***p<0.01.
†Comparing Thai ‘due yah’ with the combined Lao ‘due yah’ and ‘lueng yah’.
CR, Chiang Rai; SAL, Salavan.