Table 5.

Classification of diabetes mellitus.

	Checkpoint blockade	‘Classic’ type 1	LADA	Fulminant diabetes
Clinical features
Age at onset (range)	61 years (22–84)	Childhood or adolescence Rarely adult	>30 years	Adult
Ethnicity	Both	Non-Asian	Non-Asian	Asian
Symptoms at diagnosis	Acute (rarely subclinical)	Acute	Subclinical	Acute
Ketoacidosis	Yes (76%)	Possible	Rarely	Yes
Insulin required at diagnosis	Yes	Yes	No	Yes
Biochemical features (at diagnosis)
C-peptide	Low or undetectable (84%)	Low or undetectable	Low or normal	Low or undetectable
HbA1c (range)	7.5% (5.4–11.4)	>6.35%	7.86	<8.7%
Lipase	Elevated (52%)	Elevated (24%, DKA)	?	Elevated (98%)
Autoantibodies	Positive (53%)	Positive (>80%)	Positive	Negative
Pathophysiology
HLA association	Suspected	High risk	High/mild risk	High risk

References: (78, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113).

CRP, C-reactive peptide; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; LADA, latent autoimmune diabetes of adults.