Table 2.
Characteristics of reproductive-age women by reproductive status and metal biomarker sub-sample, NHANES 2003—2014.
| Blood Metal Sub-Sample | Urine Metal Sub-Sample | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristic | Overall (N=4,285) |
Not Pregnant/Breastfeeding (N=3,639) |
Pregnant/Breastfeeding (N=646) |
Overall (N=1,562) |
Not Pregnant/Breastfeeding (N=1,334) |
Pregnant/Breastfeeding (N=228) |
| Sociodemographics | ||||||
| Age (years), Mean ± SE | 32.2 ± 0.2 | 32.5 ± 0.2 | 29.0 ± 0.4 | 32.1 ± 0.2 | 32.4 ± 0.3 | 28.6 ± 0.5 |
| Race/Ethnicity, % | ||||||
| Non-Hispanic white | 64.4 | 64.8 | 60.6 | 64.6 | 65.2 | 58.6 |
| Non-Hispanic black | 12.6 | 12.7 | 12.4 | 12.2 | 12.3 | 11.6 |
| Hispanic | 15.7 | 15.5 | 18.0 | 15.9 | 15.6 | 19.7 |
| Other | 7.3 | 7.0 | 9.0 | 7.2 | 6.9 | 10.1 |
| Educational attainment, % | ||||||
| Less than high school diploma | 13.5 | 13.3 | 15.5 | 13.6 | 13.6 | 14.0 |
| High school diploma/GED | 18.6 | 18.9 | 15.7 | 18.9 | 19.2 | 15.7 |
| At least some college | 36.8 | 37.2 | 32.3 | 37.7 | 37.8 | 36.0 |
| College graduate or above | 31.1 | 30.6 | 36.5 | 29.9 | 29.4 | 34.3 |
| Employment status, % | ||||||
| Unemployed | 30.4 | 28.9 | 46.7 | 30.0 | 28.6 | 44.8 |
| Employed | 69.6 | 71.1 | 53.3 | 70.0 | 71.4 | 55.2 |
| Family income: poverty line, Mean ± SE | 2.7 ± 0.1 | 2.7 ± 0.1 | 2.8 ± 0.1 | 2.8 ± 0.1 | 2.7 ± 0.1 | 3.0 ± 0.2 |
| Health insurance status, % | ||||||
| No current coverage | 21.4 | 22.1 | 13.4 | 20.3 | 20.9 | 13.8 |
| Current private or public coverage | 78.6 | 77.9 | 86.6 | 79.7 | 79.1 | 86.2 |
| Marital status, % | ||||||
| Single | 38.0 | 40.2 | 14.7 | 38.0 | 40.1 | 16.1 |
| Married or living with partner | 62.0 | 59.8 | 85.3 | 62.0 | 59.9 | 83.9 |
| Nativity, % | ||||||
| Born in the US | 84.0 | 84.5 | 79.1 | 83.6 | 84.3 | 76.1 |
| Born in a US territory or another country | 16.0 | 15.5 | 20.9 | 16.4 | 15.7 | 23.9 |
| Lifestyle Factors | ||||||
| Alcohol (drinks/day), Mean ± SE | 0.5 ± 0.03 | 0.5 ± 0.03 | 0.1 ± 0.03 | 0.5 ± 0.04 | 0.5 ± 0.04 | 0.1 ± 0.04 |
| Cigarette smoke exposure, % | ||||||
| Unexposed (Non-detectable serum cotinine) | 25.5 | 23.9 | 42.4 | 24.3 | 22.8 | 40.0 |
| Secondhand (<10 ng/mL serum cotinine) | 50.0 | 50.1 | 48.0 | 51.8 | 52.1 | 49.2 |
| Active (≥10 ng/mL serum cotinine) | 24.5 | 26.0 | 9.6 | 23.9 | 25.1 | 10.8 |
| Prenatal supplement use, % | ||||||
| No | 93.8 | 97.6 | 54.3 | 93.2 | 97.6 | 47.7 |
| Yes | 6.2 | 2.4 | 45.8 | 6.8 | 2.4 | 52.3 |
| Other multi-vitamin/multi-mineral use, % | ||||||
| No | 71.2 | 70.6 | 77.3 | 72.2 | 71.6 | 77.1 |
| Yes | 28.8 | 29.4 | 22.7 | 27.9 | 28.4 | 22.9 |
| Gravidity, Mean ± SE | 2.0 ± 0.1 | 2.0 ± 0.1 | 2.6 ± 0.1 | 2.0 ± 0.07 | 2.0 ± 0.08 | 2.5 ± 0.15 |
| BMI (kg/m2). Mean ± SE | 28.5 ± 0.2 | 28.5 ± 0.2 | 28.3 ± 0.4 | 28.3 ± 0.2 | 28.4 ± 0.2 | 27.8 ± 0.5 |
| Dietary Factors | ||||||
| Calories (kcal/day), Mean ± SE | 1888 ± 12 | 1858 ± 13 | 2184 ± 39 | 1887 ± 22 | 1855 ± 22 | 2190 ± 69 |
| Seafood (ounces/day), Mean ± SE | 0.5 ± 0.03 | 0.5 ± 0.03 | 0.5 ± 0.06 | 0.5 ± 0.03 | 0.4 ± 0.03 | 0.5 ± 0.09 |
| Meat (ounces/day), Mean ± SE | 1.3 ± 0.03 | 1.3 ± 0.04 | 1.5 ± 0.09 | 1.3 ± 0.05 | 1.3 ± 0.05 | 1.5 ± 0.1 |
| Poultry (ounces/day), Mean ± SE | 1.4 ± 0.04 | 1.4 ± 0.04 | 1.4 ± 0.09 | 1.4 ± 0.05 | 1.4 ± 0.06 | 1.4 ± 0.1 |
| Vegetables (cups/day), Mean ± SE | 1.4 ± 0.02 | 1.4 ± 0.02 | 1.6 ± 0.06 | 1.4 ± 0.03 | 1.4 ± 0.03 | 1.6 ± 0.1 |
| Legumes (ounces/day), Mean ± SE | 0.1 ± 0.04 | 0.1 ± 0.04 | 0.1 ± 0.01 | 0.1 ± 0.01 | 0.1 ± 0.01 | 0.1 ± 0.02 |
| Nuts and seeds (ounces/day), Mean ± SE | 0.5 ± 0.03 | 0.5 ± 0.03 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.5 ± 0.04 | 0.5 ± 0.05 | 0.6 ± 0.09 |
| Fruit (cups/day), Mean ± SE | 0.8 ± 0.02 | 0.8 ± 0.02 | 1.4 ± 0.07 | 0.9 ± 0.04 | 0.8 ± 0.04 | 1.4 ± 0.1 |
| Eggs (ounces/day), Mean ± SE | 0.4 ± 0.01 | 0.4 ± 0.01 | 0.5 ± 0.03 | 0.4 ± 0.02 | 0.4 ± 0.02 | 0.6 ± 0.05 |
| Dairy (cups/day), Mean ± SE | 1.5 ± 0.03 | 1.5 ± 0.03 | 2.0 ± 0.08 | 1.5 ± 0.04 | 1.5 ± 0.04 | 2.1 ± 0.1 |
| Whole grains (ounces/day), Mean ± SE | 0.7 ± 0.02 | 0.7 ± 0.02 | 0.9 ± 0.07 | 0.7 ± 0.03 | 0.7 ± 0.04 | 0.9 ± 0.1 |
| Refined grains (ounces/day), Mean ± SE | 5.3 ± 0.06 | 5.2 ± 0.06 | 6.5 ± 0.2 | 5.3 ± 0.1 | 5.2 ± 0.1 | 6.6 ± 0.3 |
| Tap water source, % | ||||||
| Community supply | 73.7 | 73.7 | 74.5 | 73.7 | 73.6 | 75.0 |
| Well, rain cistern, or spring | 10.1 | 9.9 | 11.6 | 9.5 | 9.4 | 9.7 |
| Don’t drink tap water | 16.2 | 16.4 | 13.9 | 16.8 | 17.0 | 15.3 |