Table 1.
Summary of neurological diseases/conditions and their corresponding potential biomarkers.
| Neurological condition | Neural biomarker | Recording site | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parkinson's Disease | Dopamine | SNc | Lotharius and Brundin, 2002 |
| Glutamate | SNc | Johnson et al., 2009, | |
| K+, Na+, Ca2+, Cl− | StN | Bittar et al., 2005 | |
| Schizophrenia | Dopamine | Prefrontal Cortex Mesolimbic Pathway |
Winterer and Weinberger, 2004;Brisch et al., 2014 |
| Cocaine Addiction | Dopamine | Nucleus Accumbens | Groppetti et al., 1973; Volkow et al., 2006 |
| Amphetamine Addiction | Dopamine | Nucleus Accumbens | Groppetti et al., 1973 |
| Stress | Dopamine | Ventral Hippocampus | Pani et al., 2000; Lodge and Grace, 2011 |
| Essential Tremor | K+, Na+,Ca2+, Cl− | Ventral Intermediate Nucleus | Krack et al., 2003; Bittar et al., 2005 |
| Chronic Pain | K+, Na+,Ca2+, Cl− | Ventral Posterolateral Nucleus | Marchand et al., 2003 |
| Ventral Posteromedial Nucleus | |||
| Dystonia | K+, Na+,Ca2+, Cl− | Globus Pallidus Internus | Krack et al., 2003; Bittar et al., 2005 |
| Dementia | Serotonin | Prefrontal Cortex (Orbitofrontal, | Huey et al., 2006 |
| Frontal Medial and Cingulate | |||
| cortices | |||
| Anxiety | Serotonin | * | Murphy et al., 2008 |
| Migraine | Serotonin | † | Kowalska et al., 2016 |
| Epilepsy | Serotonin | Raphe Nucleus | Theodore, 2003 |
| Ipsilateral Thalamus | |||
| (to epileptic foci) | |||
| Multiple Sclerosis | Serotonin | Lumbar Cerebral Spinal Fluid | Hesse et al., 2014; Malinova et al., 2018 |
| Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis | Serotonin | Thoracic Cerebral Spinal Fluid | Sandyk, 2006 |
| Depression | Serotonin | ‡ | Manji et al., 2001 |
| Alzheimer's Disease | Acetlycholine | Basal Forebrain | Mufson et al., 2008 |
(*) Current link between serotonin and anxiety is based on measurements of the transporter SERT or the effect of Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SRIs) to ameliorate symptoms of anxiety. (†) Link with serotonin was through effect of serotonin receptor (specifically HT1B and 5-HT1D) inhibition on migraines and also links with genetic polymorphisms related to serotonin that correlate with migraine propensity. (‡) The link between serotonin and depression is through the therapeutic effects of anti-depressants that increase intrasynaptic serotonin and the fact that protocols that deplete monoamines (such as serotonin) have a tendency to precipitate depression. Hence more research is required in order to determine an isolated part of the brain, as yet to measure serotonin in order to provide a direct link.