Figure 2.

Pupae can defend against predators with different kinds of morphological and chemical defences or even rely on protection from other individuals. (a) Aposematic Heliconius melpomene butterflies' pupae are covered with spines. (b) Many moth species produce a silk cocoon or loose silk nets to protect the pupa (white satin moth, Leucoma salicis). (c) Larval, pupal and adult stage in the common buckeye (J. coenia) contain iridoid glycosides that give them chemical protection predators. (d) Maculinea rebeli butterfly pupae use vocal communication to recruit ants to guard them. (Photos: a–c Adobe Stock, D. Marco Gherlenda.)