Table 1.
Characteristics of the nine studies included in the meta-analysis.
| VR treatment |
Control group |
|||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Study | Country | Sample | Psychiatric history/Medication (N) | n | Age M (SD) | % male | n | Age M (SD) | % male | VR environment | Sessions | Control condition |
| Difede et al. (2007) | US | Firefighters, disaster relief workers, civilians with trauma related to September 11 attacks with PTSD according to DSM-IV-TR | 5 (4 prolonged exposure without meaningful improvement; 1 “treated elsewhere”/2 (stable mediation) | 10 | 40.92 (9.90) | 92 | 8 | 45.13 (7.14) | 88 | Simulation of September 11 attacks | Max. 14 (M = 7.5. SD = 3.6) | Waitlist |
| Gamito et al. (2010) | Portugal | Portuguese colonial war veterans with PTSD according to DSM-IV | n. r./stable medication | 4 | whole sample: age (M = 63.5, SD = 4.43) | 100 | 3 | n. r. | 100 | Simulation of unspecified wartime environments (dense vegetation) | 12 | Waitlist |
| Ready et al. (2010) | US | Vietnam war veterans with CAPS > 60 | all were in Veterans Affairs treatment > 3 months/stable medication | 5 | 57 (3.02) | 100 | 4 | 58 (3.05) | 100 | Simulation of Vietnam wartime environments | 10 | Present-centred therapy |
| McLay et al. (2011) | US | Active duty military personnel with past Iraq or Afghanistan deployment with PTSD (according to Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview and CAPS > 40) | n. r./n. r. | 10 | 28 (Range: 22–43) | 90 | 10 | 28.8 (Range: 21–45) | 100 | Simulation of Iraq and Afghanistan wartime environments | M = 8.8 | Treatment as usual in Veterans Affairs Facilities |
| Miyahira et al. (2012) | US | Active duty military personnel with past Iraq or Afghanistan deployment with PTSD symptoms | n. r./n. r. | 10 | n. r. | 95 (before dropouts) | 10 | n. r. | 95 (before dropouts) | Simulation of unspecified wartime environments | 10 | Minimal attention (only telephone contacts every 2 weeks)* |
| Roy et al. (2014) | US | Active duty military personnel/veterans with Iraq or Afghanistan deployment with CAPS > 40 | n. r./n. r. | 9 | 34.5 (n. r.) | 88 | 10 | 34.1 (n. r.) | 100 | Simulation of Iraq and Afghanistan wartime environments | 12 | Imaginal exposure |
| Cárdenas-López et al. (2015) | Mexico | Civilians with crime-related trauma experience with CAPS > 40 | n. r./none | 10 | 28.1 (14.9) | 50 | 10 | 39.8 (15.96) | 30 | Simulation of unsafe locations in Ciudad Juarez (Mexico) | 10 | Imaginal exposure |
| Reger et al. (2016)† | US | Active duty military personnel with past Iraq or Afghanistan deployment with PTSD according to DSM-IV-TR | 53/stable medication | 30 | 29.52 (6.47) | 96 | 32 | 30.89 (7.90) | 94 | Simulation of Iraq and Afghanistan wartime environments | 10 | Imaginal exposure |
| 47 | 30.39 (7.09) | 98 | Waitlist | |||||||||
| McLay et al. (2017) | US | Active duty military personnel with past Iraq or Afghanistan deployment with PTSD according to DSM-IV and CAPS > 40 | n. r./n. r. | 36 | 33 (8.33) | 93 | 38 | 32 (7.71) | 100 | Simulation of Iraq and Afghanistan wartime environments | M = 10.28 | Control exposure, with stimuli being presented as computer images |
Reported sample sizes are completer samples. n. r. = not reported. CAPS = Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. *treated as waitlist control condition in our analysis †participants were allocated to two control groups (imaginal exposure or waitlist).