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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2020 Sep 15.
Published in final edited form as: Acta Biomater. 2019 Jul 11;96:20–34. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.07.014

Figure 5. Summary of physical and biochemical cues to enhance regeneration of specific musculoskeletal tissues.

Figure 5.

While immunomodulatory and antimicrobial cues are common for the design of bio-instructive materials for musculoskeletal tissues, the necessary biochemical and physical cues are tissue specific. Softer and aligned substrates are preferred for muscle and cartilage, but bone requires stiff and randomly oriented materials to effectively guide cells toward the osteogenic lineage. Muscle regeneration is enhanced by the presentation of myogenic factors (e.g., IGF-1, SDF1α), cartilage by the presentation of members of the TGF-β superfamily (e.g., TGF-β1, TGF-β3) and the suppression of chondrocyte hypertrophy, and bone by other members of the TGF-β superfamily (e.g., BMP-2, BMP-4), angiogenic factors and the promotion of tissue biomineralization.