Table 3.

Metabolic challenge test to evaluate nutritional effects on chronic low-grade inflammation.

Observation	Study design	Biomarkers	References
Wholegrain wheat consumption leads to lower basal CRP and sICAM3 as compared to refined wheat consumption, whereas increased inflammatory resilience was observed for multiple cytokines.	Refined wheat (n = 25) vs. wholegrain wheat (n = 25) intervention in 45–70 years old males and females with elevated cholesterol (>5 mmol/L) PhenFlex challenge test dynamics up to 4 h	TNF-α#, IL-6#, IL-8#, IL-10#, CRP*, #, SAA#, sICAM1, sICAM3*, sVCAM1, P-selectin, E-selectin, Thrombomodulin	(70)
No significant differences were observed in basal inflammatory state between lean and MetS subjects. Inflammatory resilience was reflected in diminished cytokine and oxylipin responses.	4 week high-fat, high-caloric diet intervention (n = 10) in males between 35 and 65 years High fat challenge test dynamics up to 8 h	CRP, SAA, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8#a, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-18, TNF-α, IFN-γ#b, C3, sICAM1#b, sVCAM1, adiponectin*#b, leptin*#b, resistin*#a9(S)-HODE, 13(S)-HODE, 11(S)-HETE#a, 12(S)-HETE#a, 9,10-DiHOME, 12,13-DiHOME, 19,20-DiHoPE*, #b, 8,9-DiHETrE, 11,12-DiHETrE, 14,15-DiHETrELeukocytes, lymphocytes#b, neutrophils#b, monocytes#b, eosinophils, basophils	(51)
Fasting levels of immune cell attraction markers were modified with 4-week dark chocolate consumption. No difference between flavonol-enriched and normal dark chocolate.	4-week dark chocolate consumption (n = 41) by males with age 45–70 years High fat challenge test dynamics up to 4 h	CRP, SAA, IL-1β, IL-6#, IL-8#, TNF-α*#, sICAM1*#, sVCAM1#, E-selectin, P-selectin#, sICAM3*#, Thrombomodulin, vWFLeukocytes*#, lymphocytes#, monocytes#, neutrophils#${\text{CD66b}}_N^{*}$, CD11bN#, CD62LN#, CD11cM#, CD11bM#, CD62L$M_{*}^{\#}$, ${\text{CD11c}}_L^{\#}$, ${\text{CD11b}}_L^{*}$, ${\text{CD62L}}_L^{*}$	(87)
Inflammatory resilience was found positively influenced by the anti-inflammatory mix	5 week intervention with anti-inflammatory dietary mix (n = 36) of males aged 55–59 years High fat challenge test dynamics up to 6 h	With proteomics profiling, the following markers were significantly changed: CD40#a, VCAM1*, #a, fibrinogen#a, EGFR#a, vWF#a, ACE#a and ICAM1#b, Il-18*#b, TNF RII#b, adiponectin#b, factor VII#b, CCL-22#b, β2-microglobulin#b	(67, 79)

Markers that were statistically significantly affect by the intervention are shown in bold.

^*marks a difference in fasting levels,

^#indicates different postprandial challenge test levels,

^aindicates a different challenge response and

^bindicates different offset levels observed due to repeated measurements.