Table 2.

Effect of ginger on degenerative disease (in vivo studies).

Related Disease	Constituent	Effects	References
Alzheimer's disease	Ginger root extract	(i) Improved learning and memory (ii) Increased the number of Nissl bodies and neurons (iii) Increased the activation of SOD and CAT (iv) Decreased the levels of MDA, NF-κB, and interleukin-1 (IL-1)	Zeng et al. [103]
	Aqueous ginger infusion	(i) Improved the activity and level of acetylcholine (ii) Improved T-maze test results and reduced acetylcholinesterase activity (iii) Induced the disappearance of amyloid plaques	Karam et al. [104]
Parkinson's disease	6-Shogaol	(i) Reduced astrogliosis and microgliosis in the brain (ii) Enhanced the expression of nerve growth factor (NGF) level and synaptic molecules (iii) Inhibited the inflammatory response	Moon et al. [105]
	6-Shogaol	(i) Improved the formation of synapses in the brain (ii) Inhibited components of the inflammatory pathway such as TNF-α, NO, COX-2, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)	Park et al. [106]
Type 2 diabetes mellitus	Fresh ginger sample	(i) Exhibited inhibitory activities against α-amylase and α-glucosidase (ii) Inhibited ACE activity	Akinyemi et al. [109]
Cardiovascular disease	Ginger extract	(i) Reduced infarct size (ii) Reduced total cholesterol serum	Rouhi-Boroujeni et al. [113]
	Ethanolic ginger extract	(i) Decreased the development of atherosclerotic lesions (ii) Reduced plasma levels, LDL cholesterol levels, LDL atherogenic modifications, and the oxidative response of macrophages	Fuhrman et al. [114]
	6-Gingerol	(i) Reduced atherosclerotic lesions in arteries (ii) Reversed the expression of inflammatory cytokines and lipids	Wang et al. [115]
	Dried ginger powder	(i) Decreased lipid levels and blood pressure	Sanghal et al. [117]
	Aqueous ginger extract	(i) Inhibited ACE activity (ii) Prevented lipid peroxidation in the heart	Akinyemi et al. [83]
	Fresh ginger sample	(i) Inhibited ACE activity	Akinyemi et al. [109]