Table 4.
Average treatment effects on the treated and mean values of diet quality, energy, and nutrients intake of adults (19-years-old) across WGCs.
| NRF | Energy (Kcal/d) | Folate a (DFE/d) | Iron a (mcg/d) | Calcium b (mg/d) | Fiber (g/d) | Magnesium b (mg/d) | Thiamin a (mg/d) | Carbohydrates (g/d) | Riboflavin a (mg/d) | Niacin a (mg/d) | Potassium (mg/d) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ‘Minimal grain’ Consumers (total grain intake<1 serving/day) | ATE (SE) | −9.5 *,† (−1.4) | −513.2 *,† (−14.8) | −183.1 *,† (−16.4) | −4.6*,† (−16) | −214 *,† (−10) | −4.9 *,† (−11.1) | −54.7 *,† (−7.6) | −0.7 *,† (−17.9) | −83 *,† (−19.7) | −0.4 *,† (−8.2) | −7.6 *,† (−8) | −232.7 *,† (−3.9) |
| Mean (SEM) | 515.9 (11.3) | 1465.2 (76.8) | 265.1 (14.7) | 8.3 (0.4) | 582.4 (31.4) | 12.4 (0.6) | 264.1 (10.8) | 0.9 (0) | 142.7 (2.2) | 1.6 (0.1) | 34.6 (2.3) | 2540 (83.2) | |
| The Lowest (WGCs: 0% to 20%) | ATE (SEM) | −58.1 *,† (−18.8) | 159.1 *,† (9) | 109.2 *,† (21) | 0.5 *,† (3.6) | −5.6 † (−0.5) | −3.4 *,† (−14.7) | −39.8 *,† (−11.3) | 0.1 *,† (6.9) | 17.2 *,† (7.7) | 0.1 *,† (6.2) | 1.9 *,† (4) | −139.1*,† (−5.1) |
| Mean (SEM) | 491.13 (2.72) | 1946.9 (19.2) | 483.6 (6.1) | 12.6 (0.1) | 794 (11.7) | 15.7 (0.2) | 293.7 (3.4) | 1.6 (0) | 230.1 (2.2) | 2 (0) | 40.5 (0.5) | 2649.3 (26.8) | |
| Low (WGCs: 20% to 40%) | ATE (SE) | 32.2 *,† (7.3) | 90.6 (3.3) | 25.9 *,† (3.2) | 1.6 *,† (7.1) | 102.8 * (6.1) | 2.6 *,† (8) | 33 *,† (6.4) | 0.2 *,† (6.1) | 20.5 *,† (6.1) | 0.1 *,† (3.6) | 1.4 * (2.1) | 134 * (3.3) |
| Mean (SEM) | 555.02 (5.01) | 1967.5 (38.6) | 458.1 (9.6) | 13.7 (0.3) | 836.6 (19.6) | 19.7 (0.4) | 339.3 (5.8) | 1.8 (0.1) | 241.8 (4.8) | 2(0) | 40.5 (1) | 2841.7 (50.7) | |
| Balanced (WGCs: 40% to 60%) | ATE (SE) | 48.8 * (9.9) | 39.9 (1.4) | −33.5 * (−3.5) | 1 * (3.8) | 69.2 * (3.6) | 4 (10.3) | 54.8 * (8.9) | 0.1 * (1.9) | 11.7 * (3.2) | −0.01 * (−0.2) | 0.9 (1.1) | 245.7 * (5.2) |
| Mean (SEM) | 565.25 (7.32) | 1834.2 (44) | 397.1 (10.4) | 12.6 (0.3) | 855.9 (36.2) | 20.5 (0.6) | 342.8 (7.6) | 1.6 (0.1) | 221.6 (5.5) | 1.8 (0.1) | 37.3 (0.9) | 2789.8 (60.6) | |
| High (WGCs: 60% to 80%) | ATE (SE) | 43.6 * (6.8) | −42.4 (−1.2) | −94.9 *,† (−9) | −0.3 † (−1.1) | 22.9 † (1) | 3.8 (6.7) | 46.9 * (6.3) | −0.1 *,† (−2.2) | −6 *,† (−1.3) | −0.1 (−1.3) | 0.4 (0.4) | 130.5 * (2.1) |
| Mean (SEM) | 575.57 (6.81) | 1717.1 (41.6) | 352.4 (12.7) | 11.9 (0.4) | 736.9 (26) | 22.1 (0.7) | 348.1 (9.7) | 1.6 (0.1) | 213.3 (5.2) | 1.7 (0) | 36.4 (1.3) | 2715.8 (77.9) | |
| The Highest (WGCs: ≥ 80% ) | ATE (SE) | 51.7 * (9.4) | −175.3 *,† (−5.4) | −118 *,† (−11.9) | −0.8 *,† (−2.9) | −37.3 *,† (−1.7) | 3.8 (8.1) | 40 * (5.8) | −0.2 *,† (−5.9) | −18.9 *,† (−4.7) | −0.2 *,† (−4.4) | −2.9 *,† (−3.4) | 119.6 * (2.3) |
| Mean (SEM) | 576.2 (7.59) | 1631.7 (39.4) | 307.9 (11.9) | 11.1 (0.4) | 693.8 (24.1) | 20.5 (0.6) | 332.9 (9.2) | 1.3 (0) | 194 (5.6) | 1.7 (0.1) | 35.7 (1.2) | 2712 (75.5) |
* Significantly different from zero (p < 0.05). † Significantly different from the balanced intake of grain. ATE—Average treatment effects on the treated. WGC—the share of whole grain intakes from the total daily grain intake. SEM—standard error of the mean. a Nutrient that was added for the mandatory fortification of refined flour. b Nutrient that was added for voluntary fortification of refined flour. NRF: nutrient rich food index 9.3. DFE: dietary folate equivalent.