Table 1.

Important enzymatic, non-enzymatic, and synthetic antioxidants.

Antioxidants	Type of Antioxidants	Type of Antioxidants	Action Mechanism	Reference
Enzymatic	endogenous	Superoxide dismutase	Preventing peroxynitrite formation, reducing levels of F2-isoprostanes and isofurans in the aorta and reduction of transition-metal ions	[23,47]
		Catalase	Reducing vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation	[48,49]
		Glutathione peroxidase	Inhibition of H2O2-mediated expression of MCP-1 and VCAM-1	[10,50]
		Thioredoxin reductase	Increasing NO bioavailability and decreasing oxidative stress	[51,52,53]
Non-enzymatic	endogenous	Glutathione	Modulation of the size of atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic arch	[54]
		Uric acid	Increasing cytokine production, scavenging OH, plaque instability, attenuating endothelial activation and SMC proliferation	[68]
		Bilirubin	Scavenging oxidants, inhibiting protein oxidation, attenuating endothelial activation/dysfunction and SMC proliferation	[61,62,63,64,65]
		Coenzyme Q	Inhibiting lipid and protein oxidation, scavenging peroxyl radicals and improving endothelial function	[56,57,58,59,60]
		Lipoic acid	Inhibition atherosclerotic lesion development, increasing in eNOS activity	[69,70,71,72]
	exogenous	Vitamin E	Preventing foam cell formation and endothelial dysfunction, scavenging free radicals, diminishing the oxidation of LDL and modulating endothelial cells	[73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82]
		Vitamin C	Enhancement of NOS activity, inhibition of cyclooxygenase, diminishing cell–cell adhesion, improvement of endothelial dysfunction and vasodilation	[87,88,89]
		B vitamins	Scavenging hydroxyl and lipid peroxyl radicals, improving endothelial function	[94,95]
		Vitamin A and Carotenoids	Prevention LDL peroxidation, reducing inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction	[99,100]
		Polyphenols	Suppressing ROS formation, increasing the expression level of eNOS, inhibiting angiogenesis, reducing platelet aggregation and hypertension	[105,106,107,108,109,110]
Synthetic	Synthetic	Probucol	Augmentation of endothelial function and repair, inducing heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in arterial cells, inhibiting vasomotor dysfunction and fatty streak formation, inducing heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in arterial cells	[87,116,117]
		BO-653n	Reduces α-tocopheroxyl radical and inhibits LDL oxidation in the intimal area	[116,117,118,119]