Table 1.
Chemical composition and biological activities of Euphorbia essential oils.
| Species | Origin | Raw Material | Extraction Method | Main Components a (%) | Most Relevant Biological Activities | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| E. acanthothamnos Heldr. & Sart. ex Boiss. | Greece | Inflorescences | Steam distillation | Phytol (28.3), phytol acetate (9.3), β-caryophyllene (7.5) | not evaluated | [59] |
| E. apios L. | Greece | Inflorescences | Steam distillation | Germacrene D (30.0), heptacosane (12.7), β-caryophyllene (10.0), tricosane (6.5), pentacosane (6.0) | not evaluated | [59] |
| E. characias L. | Greece | Inflorescences | Steam distillation | Nonanal (22.8), phytol (13.5), pentacosane (8.5), heptacosane (7.4), palmitic acid (5.7), nonacosane (5.6) | not evaluated | [59] |
| E. cotinifolia L. (syn. E. caracasana (Klotzsch & Garcke) Boiss.) | Venezuela | Leaves | Hydro-distillation | β-Caryophyllene (39.3), germacrene-D (21.5%), α-copaene (9.3), α-humulene (5.2) | not evaluated | [60] |
| E. dendroides L. | Greece | Inflorescences | Steam distillation | Heptacosane (10.5), pentacosane (6.0), 4-terpineol (5.5), tricosane (5.0) | not evaluated | [59] |
| E. densa Schrenk | Syria | Aerial parts | Hydro-distillation | 1,8-Cineole (18.87), linalool (13.61), carvacrol (13.32), (E)-caryophyllene (10.29) | Radical scavenging activity (EC50 = 0.35 µg/mL) lower than BHA (EC50 = 0.135 µg/mL) | [61] |
| E. fischeriana Steud. | China | Roots | Steam distillation | Eudesmol (18.22), p-menth-8-en-2-ol (9.36), caryophyllene oxide (8.61), selinenol (6.83) | Radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 57.2 µg/mL) similar to ascorbic acid (IC50 = 63.1 µg/mL) but lower than BHT (IC50 = 26.1 µg/mL) | [62] |
| E. fragifera Jan | Italy | Inflorescences | Steam distillation | Carvacrol (61.55), carvon (9.22), β-caryophyllene (5.80)/geraniol (59.65), β-caryophyllene (9.05) | not evaluated | [63] |
| E. gaillardotii Boiss. & Blanche | Turkey | Aerial parts | Hydro-distillation | Arachidic acid (32), hexatriacontane (8.7), mint furanone (8.4), palmitic acid (8.0), tetratetracontane (6.2), octadecane (5.6), α-silenene (5.2) | Anti-lipid peroxidation activity (IC50 = 14.8 µg/mL) similar to α-tocopherol, but much lower radical scavenging activity than BHT. | [64] |
| E. golondrina L.C.Wheeler | Cameroon | Leaves | Steam distillation | Caryophyllene oxide (14.16), 2-pentadecanone (13.78), camphor (9.41), phytol (5.75) | not evaluated | [65] |
| E. hebecarpa Boiss. | Iran | Aerial parts | Hydro-distillation | α-Bisabolol (31.2), cis-cadin-4-en-7-ol (20.1), trans-piperitol (8.6), cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (6.4), trans-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (6.2) | not evaluated | [66] |
| E. helioscopia L. | Greece | Inflorescences | Steam distillation | Phytol (21.2), β-caryophyllene (10.0), behenic acid methyl ester (8.1), myristic acid methyl ester (5.5) | not evaluated | [59] |
| E. helioscopia L. | Turkey | Aerial parts | Hydro-distillation | β-Cubebene (19.3), palmitic acid (12.2), caryophyllene oxide (11.7), τ-elemene (9.3), spathulenol (9.3), phytol (6.9), hexahydrofarnesly acetone (5.3) | Low antioxidant and antiacetylcholinesterase activity, moderate butyrylcholinesterase and similar anti-urease activity to thiourea. | [67] |
| E. heterophylla L. | Nigeria | Leaves | Hydro-distillation | 3,7,12,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol (12.30), stearic acid (11.21), oleic acid (10.42), linoleic acid (8.97), 1,2-epoxy-cyclododecane (7.91), 13-tetradece-11-yn-1-ol (7.83), 7,10-hexadecadienal (7.62), 1,2,15,16-diepoxyhexadecane (6.37), phytol (6.32), 2-monopalmitin (5.43) | Toxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC50 = 21.7 µg/mL). Radical scavenging activity similar to ascorbic acid, lower than BHA but higher than α-tocopherol at 250 µg/mL. | [68] |
| E. heterophylla L. | Nigeria | Stems | Hydro-distillation | Stearic acid (11.21), oleic acid (10.42), linoleic acid (8.97), 1,2-epoxy-cyclododecane (7.91), 13-tetradece-11-yn-1-ol (7.83), 7,10-hexadecadienal (7.62), 1,2,15,16-diepoxyhexadecane (6.37), phytol (6.32), 2-monopalmitin (5.43), 2-aminoethoxyethynediyl methyl ester (5.40) | Very toxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC50 = 8.94 µg/mL). Radical scavenging activity similar to ascorbic acid, lower than BHA but higher than α-tocopherol at 250 µg/mL. | [68] |
| E. heterophylla L. | Egypt | Aerial parts | Hydro-distillation | 1,8-Cineole (32.0), camphor (16.5), β-elemene (5.9 ) | Radical scavenging activity (IC50 325.3 µL/L) lower than ascorbic acid (204.4 µL/L). | [69] |
| E. hirta L. | Lagos | Leaves | Hydro-distillation | Phytol and its isomeric forms (34.8), 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone (12.37), hexadecanal (7.63), palmitic acid (6.26) | not evaluated | [70] |
| E. macroclada Boiss. | Turkey | Aerial parts | Hydro-distillation | Tetratetracontane (42.7), hexatriacontane (12), mint furanone (6.0) | Anti-lipid peroxidation activity (IC50 = 14.8 µg/mL) similar to α-tocopherol. Lower radical scavenging activity than BHT but higher than E. gaillardotii essential oil. | [64] |
| E. macrorrhiza C.A.Mey. ex Ledeb. | China | Aerial parts | Hydro-distillation | Acorenone B (16.72), (+)-cycloisosativene (14.94), 3β-hydroxy-5α-androstane (10.62), β-cedrene (8.40), copaene (7.37), palmitic acid (5.68) | Cytotoxic activity against Caco-2 cell line (IC50 = 78.32 µg/mL), antibacterial activity against Staphyloccocus aureus (MIC = 5.6 µg/mL) but lower than ampicillin (MIC = 0.25 µg/mL) | [71] |
| E. macrorrhiza C.A.Mey. ex Ledeb. | China | Roots | Hydro-distillation | Acorenone B (25.80), (+)-cycloisosativene (12.40), β-cedrene (7.98), copaene (6.29), 3β-hydroxy-5α-androstane (5.52) | Cytotoxic activity against Caco-2 cell line (IC50 = 11.86 µg/mL), antibacterial activity against Staphyloccocus aureus (MIC = 2.8 µg/mL) but lower than ampicillin (MIC = 0.25 µg/mL) | [71] |
| E. pekinensis Rupr. | China | Roots | Steam distillation | Agarospirol (49.23), hedycargol (20.66) | not evaluated | [72] |
| E. pilosa L. | India | Aerial parts | Hydro-distillation | Phytol (5.75), n-pentadecanal (5.12) | not evaluated | [73] |
| E. rigida M.Bieb. | Greece | Inflorescences | Steam distillation | Heneicosane (13.8), heptacosane (12.7), β-caryophyllene (9.4), linalool (6.7), pentacosane (6.5) | not evaluated | [59] |
| E. sanctae-caterinae Fayed | Egypt | Aerial parts | Hydro-distillation | Valencene (16.01), (+) spathulenol (15.41), (-)-caryophyllene oxide (10.50), limonene (7.66) | not evaluated | [74] |
| E. sanctae-caterinae Fayed | Egypt | Aerial parts | Microwave-assisted | Butyl hydroxyl toluene (25.58), β-eudesmol (13.67), 6-epi-shyobunol (11.83), (+) spathulenol (10.32), thymol (7.00) | not evaluated | [74] |
| E. teheranica Boiss. | Iran | Aerial parts | Hydro-distillation | Elemol (57.5), β-caryophyllene (8.1%), caryophyllene oxide (7.8%) | not evaluated | [75] |
| E. thymifolia L. | India | Aerial parts | Steam distillation | Palmitic acid (33.03), phytol (10.367), myristic acid (6.58) | not evaluated | [76] |
| E. tithymaloides L. | Bangladesh | Aerial parts | Steam distillation | Eugenol (22.52), phenyl ethyl alcohol (14.63), 3-pentanol (9.22), caryophyllene oxide (7.73), isoeugenol (7.32), pentadecanol (5.14), spathulenol (5.11) | Radical scavenging activity (DPPH IC50 = 13.67 µg/mL) higher than BHA (IC50 = 18.26 µg/mL). | [77] |
a Compounds with content higher than 5%.