Table 2.

Use of grape pomace-derived phenolics to inhibit AGE formation in foods or to increase the potential antiglycation activity of foods.

Food	Phenolic Source	Identified Phenolics	Outcome	Ref.
Wheat bread	Grape seed extract powder Integration: 2 g/kg bread	n.d.	CML level was 35 mg/kg in the bread crust of the control Addition of grape seed extract caused a 50% decrease in CML level	[43]
Wheat bread	Purified phenolics Integration: 1–20 g/kg flour	Flavanol: catechin Flavonol: quercetin Phenolic acids: gallic acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acids	CML level was 49.71 mg/kg in the bread crust of the control and 15.09 mg/kg in the bread crumb of the control Phenolics were found to significantly reduce CML (31.77%–87.56%)	[44]
Model cookie	Purified phenolics Integration: 25 g/kg	Flavonol: quercetin Flavanone: naringenin Flavanol: epicatechin Phenolic acids: rosmarinic acid, chlorogenic acid	Inhibition of fluorescent AGE formation was 80% for quercetin and ˂20% for naringenin, epicatechin, rosmarinic acid, chlorogenic acid	[45]
Muffin	Red grape pomace Integration: 200 g/kg	Phenolic acids: gallic acid Flavanols: catechin, epicatechin, oligomeric procyanidins Flavonols: quercetin 3-β-d-glucoside	CML level in the control muffins was 0.79–25.55 mg/kg depending on the receipt Red grape pomace decreased the level of CML up to 100%	[27]
Bread	Quercetin Integration: 12–36 g/kg	Flavonol: quercetin	Quercetin conferred antiglycation activity to bread	[46]
Tomato puree	White grape skin Integration: 30 g/kg	Flavonols: rutin, quercetin 3-O-glucuronide, quercetin 3-O-glucoside, quercetin, kaempferol 3-O-galactoside, kaempferol 3-O-glucuronide, kaempferol 3-O-glucoside, kaempferol Flavanone: naringenin Flavanols: oligomeric procyanidins	Addition of grape skins caused a 2.5-fold increase in the in vitro antiglycation activity of tomato (8 mmol catechin equivalents/kg in the fortified puree)	[47]
Apple puree	Red grape skin Integration: 30 g/kg	Anthocyanins: delphinidin 3-O-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, petunidin 3-O-glucoside, peonidin 3-O-glucoside, malvidin 3-O-glucoside Flavanols: catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B2, procyanidin B1, oligomeric proanthocyanidins Phenolic acids: chlorogenic acid Dihydrochalcones: phloretin-2-O-xyloglucoside, phloridzin Flavonols: quercetin 3-O-glucoside, quercetin 3-O-glucuronide, quercetin, kaempferol	Addition of grape skins caused a 2.0-fold increase in the in vitro antiglycation activity of apple puree (69 mmol aminoguanidine equivalents/kg)	[48]
Alginate microcapsules	Red grape skin extract	Anthocyanins: delphinidin 3-O-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, petunidin 3-O-glucoside, peonidin 3-O-glucoside, malvidin 3-O-glucoside Flavanols: catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B2, procyanidin B1 Flavonols: quercetin 3-O-glucoside, quercetin, kaempferol	The microbeads acted as pH-controlled release system for anti-glycation agents	[49]

n.d.: not determined; CML: Nε-(carboxymethyl) lysine.