Figure 1.

Acetate sources and acetate-mediated effects in metabolic health. Exogenous acetate production includes vinegar as well as the supplementation of acetogenic fiber and probiotics. Acetogenic fiber characteristics (e.g. length, glycosidic bond configuration) may determine acetate production. Endogenous acetate production occurs in all tissues but predominantly in the liver. Microbial acetate is mainly produced in the colon. Colonic absorption and acetate systemic concentrations may differ between colonic production sites (proximal/distal). Importantly, acetate may increase GLP-1 and PYY secretion in the colon. Systemic acetate may improve metabolic health via improvements in adipose tissue functioning (antilipolytic/anti-inflammatory effects) insulin sensitivity and oxidative capacity (e.g. liver, skeletal muscle) increments in satiety (central nervous system) and modulation of insulin secretion (pancreas). Solid lines indicate well-studied effects of acetate, dashed line indicate more inconsistent findings.