Table 1.

Summary of literature reporting preclinical bone formation in marrow or MSC‐loaded scaffolds implanted ectopically (AVL‐arteriovenous loop, AVB, arteriovenous bundle). A complete review may be found in ref. 16

Implant	Cells	Bioactive substance	Species	Intrinsic vascularization mode	Implantation	Implantation site	Bone formation	Ref.
Titanium mesh	Bone marrow cells 20 × 106 per implant	None	Rat	None	Up to 6 weeks	Subcutaneous	9 ± 6%	37
BCP	Rat BMSCs	None	Immunodeficient mouse	None	Up to 10 weeks	Subcutaneous	22 ± 3.6%	38
BCP	Sheep BMSCs	None	Immunodeficient mouse	None	Up to 24 weeks	Subcutaneous	Up to 8.4% after 8 weeks	39
β‐TCP	Human bone marrow concentrate	BMP 2	Immunodeficient mouse	None	Up to 4 weeks	Subcutaneous	10.2 ± 3.3%	40
BCP	Human BMSCs 4.0 × 106 per implant	None	Immunodeficient mouse	None	Up to 8 weeks	Subcutaneous	15.9 ± 4.0%	41
HA	Expanded sheep BMSCs 0.5–1.5 × 106 per implant	none	Immunodeficient mouse	None	Up to 8 weeks	Subcutaneous	19.8 ± 2.5%	42
β‐TCP	Bone marrow aspirate	None	Sheep	With or without AVL	Up to 6 months	Intramuscular	Without AVL: 23.7 ± 0.8% with AVL: 36.5 ± 2.6%	20
HA, Si‐TCP, decellularized bone	BMSCs	BMP‐2	Rat	AVL	Up to 12 weeks	Subcutaneous	Up to 21.6 ± 3.7%	43
Demineralized bone matrix + membrane	Endothelial progenitor cells per Osteoblasts	None	Rat	AVB	Up to 12 weeks	Subcutaneous	Up to 18.17 ± 0.5%	44
β‐TCP	BMSCs ≈5.5 × 105 per implant	None	Rabbit	With or without AVL	Up to 8 weeks	Subcutaneous	Without AVL : 26.6 ± 3.5% with AVL : 42.8 ± 5.9%	31
HA, collagen, polylactic acid	Bone marrow		Rabbit	AVB	Up to 10 weeks	Intramuscular	Not quantified	19
β‐TCP	BMSCs	None	Rabbit	AVB	4 weeks	Intramuscular	Implant wrapped in periosteum = 14.82 ± 3.0% no bone without periosteum	45
HA, silica gel	Autologous blood		Sheep	AVL	Up to 18 weeks	Subcutaneous	Up to 1.8 ± 2.1%	46