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. 2019 Aug 8;34(6):766–779. doi: 10.1037/pag0000385

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© 2019 The Author(s)

This article has been published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s). Author(s) grant(s) the American Psychological Association the exclusive right to publish the article and identify itself as the original publisher.

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Simplified path diagram of the latent difference score model testing for associations between hearing ability at age 76 and level or change in cognitive ability. Ellipses represent latent variables, rectangles observed variables, double headed arrows correlations, and single headed arrows regression paths. Dotted lines indicate paths fixed to 1 for identification purposes. Only the first three cognitive ability tests are shown; however, 13 tests served as indicators of general cognitive ability at each wave. Also not shown, are correlations between measurement residuals of the cognitive ability tests. Measurement residuals of groups of tests from the same cognitive ability domain were allowed to correlate within and between waves (as described in the Method section).