Table 1.
Chito-oligomers considered in this study, their computed molecular weights (MW), and known medical and side effects (NA means not available data).
| DD | Acetylation pattern | MW (g/mol) | Medical effects | Side effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0% | A | 221.21 | N-acetyl-D-glucosamine is used in treating osteoarthritis, cancer, and wounds (Jordan et al., 2003; Masuda et al., 2014). It proved to be useful for treating colds and pain (Konno, 2002) and is found in cosmetic products being able to reduce the facial hyperpigmentation (Bissett et al., 2007). | A study concerning oral administration of GlcNAc at doses of 500 and 1000 mg/day for 68 female revealed no side effects (Kubomura et al., 2017). |
| 2A 3A |
424.40 627.59 |
Di-N-acetyl chitobiose and tri-N-acetyl chitotriose did not show anti-oxidant activity in vitro (Chen et al., 2003) but proved to be useful for treating colds and pain (Konno, 2002). | NA | |
| 4A 5A |
870.79 1,033.98 |
Tetra-N acetyl-chitotetraose and penta N-acetyl chitopentaose have been used for treating colds and pain (Konno, 2002). Tetra-N acetyl-chitotetraose significantly improved both learning and of rats suffering of Alzheimer's disease (Jiang et al., 2019). | NA | |
| 6A | 1,237.17 | Hexa N -acetyl chitohexaose revealed a tumor grows inhibitory effect (Xiong et al., 2009) and had favorable influence in treating colds and pain (Konno, 2002). Chitohexaose blocks the induction of inflammatory mediators both in vitro and in vivo (Das et al., 2019) and significantly improved both learning and of rats suffering of Alzheimer's disease (Jiang et al., 2019). | NA | |
| 8A | 1,643.56 | Octa N -acetyl chitooctose had favorable influence in treating colds and pain (Konno, 2002). | NA | |
| 33% | ADA | 585.56 | N,N′-diacetylchitotriose exhibited an anti-oxidant activity in vitro (Li et al., 2013). | NA |
| 50% | DA | 382.36 | NA | NA |
| DADA | 746.71 | NA | NA | |
| ADAD | 746.71 | NA | NA | |
| AADD | 746.71 | NA | NA | |
| DDAA | 746.71 | NA | NA | |
| DAAD | 746.71 | NA | NA | |
| ADDA | 746.71 | NA | NA | |
| DADADA | 1,475.41 | NA | NA | |
| ADADAD | 1,475.41 | NA | NA | |
| DADADADA | 1,857.77 | NA | NA | |
| 67% | DDA | 543.52 | N-acetylchitotriose revealed an anti-oxidant activity in vitro (Li et al., 2013). | NA |
| ADDDAD | 1,069.02 | NA | NA | |
| DDDADA | 1,069.02 | NA | NA | |
| 100% | D | 179.17 | Glucosamine is a popular food supplement used for treating osteoarthritis, but clinical trials on humans did not reveal results supporting its efficacy for every human subject (Chan and Fat, 2011; Liu et al., 2018). Glucosamine administration is expected to promote wound healing by enhancing hyaluronic acid production (Esfahani et al., 2012). It has anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-fibrotic, anti-fungal, neuro-protective, cardio-protective, skin hydration, and wrinkle reduction properties (Masuda et al., 2014; Zahedipour et al., 2017; Fawzya et al., 2019). It induced weight loss and reduced triglyceride and cholesterol levels in serum (Huang et al., 2015). | Clinical trial data obtained for 3063 human subjects revealed non effects of the oral administration of glucosamine on glucose metabolism and on urine, blood, and fecal parameters (Anderson et al., 2005). It may induce mild gastrointestinal disorders (Dalirfardouei et al., 2016). |
| 2D | 340.33 | Chitobiose had a strong anti-oxidant activity in (Chen et al., 2003) and has been used for treating common colds and pain (Konno, 2002). Chitobiose revealed a significant inhibitory effect on hepatic lipid accumulation in vitro (Li et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2019) and anti-bacterial effect on Gram-positive bacteria (Li et al., 2014). | NA | |
| 3D | 501.48 | Chitotriose revealed potency to treat colds and pain (Konno, 2002), strong anti-oxidant activity in vitro (Chen et al., 2003), a low inhibitory effect on hepatic lipid accumulation in vitro (Li et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2019) and an anti-bacterial effect on Gram-positive bacteria (Li et al., 2014). Chitotriose seems to have beneficial effects on the nervous system (Jiang et al., 2014). | NA | |
| 4D | 662.64 | Chitotetraose revealed a low inhibitory effect on hepatic lipid accumulation in vitro (Li et al., 2018) and an anti-bacterial effect on Gram-positive bacteria (Li et al., 2014). It had favorable properties for treating pain and colds (Konno, 2002). | NA | |
| 5D | 823.79 | Chitopentaose revealed a low inhibitory effect on hepatic lipid accumulation in vitro (Li et al., 2018), an enhanced anti-bacterial effect on Gram-positive bacteria (Li et al., 2014) and anti-inflammatory action in vitro (Li et al., 2012). | NA | |
| 6D | 984.95 | Chitohexaose revealed a low inhibitory effect on hepatic lipid accumulation in vitro (Li et al., 2018), exhibited a high anti-tumor activity in vitro (Xiong et al., 2009; Li et al., 2016) and anti-fungal activity (Fawzya et al., 2019). | NA | |
| 8D | 1,307.26 | Chitooctose had favorable influence in treating colds and pain (Konno, 2002). | NA |